Organisational factors in the implementation of educational modules at schools in Barranquilla (Colombia)

The success of educational programs hinges not only on their design but also on their effective implementation within specific community contexts. Organizational factors play a crucial role, particularly when teachers, rather than external professionals, are responsible for implementation. Integrating programs into existing school activities improves coverage and relevance but makes them dependent on internal school dynamics and staff management policies. Durlak and DuPre's (2008) extensive review highlights the importance of organizational factors, including leadership, organizational climate, teamwork, task design, program integration, and the training and motivation of program implementers. Research on school-based programs confirms that culture and organizational climate influence teacher attitudes and program sustainability, with working atmosphere linked to implementation fidelity (Williams et al., 2019). Teacher training and technical assistance increase fidelity (Eiraldi et al., 2014), and continuous supervision facilitates program development (Wolfenden et al., 2014). However, a work design approach systematically examining the structure of teaching staff positions, tasks, and roles, and their impact on program implementation, remains relatively unexplored. The work design model posits that job nature and content affect worker satisfaction and performance, emphasizing the importance of task autonomy, feedback, and other job characteristics (Parker et al., 2001). This study utilizes this perspective to investigate how job and organizational design influence program implementation and performance in school contexts. The implementation of programs depends on their integration into the organizational context. When teachers are the implementers, the program's success depends on its articulation with their regular teaching duties, the training and support they receive, and resource availability. Workload (Lichtenstein, 1982), hierarchical support (Ugwu and Onyancha, 2019), and work design characteristics (Rosati and Faria, 2019) can significantly influence implementation. Work overload creates conflicts, hindering program development and fidelity, while teamwork reduces workload and improves performance. School management support secures resources, logistical aid, and legitimacy, facilitating implementation with appropriate fidelity (Aksorn and Hadikusumo, 2010; Ugwu and Onyancha, 2019; Chaux et al., 2017; Lochmiller et al., 2016), and fostering organizational flexibility for innovation (Sperandio et al., 2009). School size and structure, reflected in work design, also influence implementation. Class size (Correa and González, 2016) and teacher training and motivation (Benveniste & McEwan, 2000) are key factors. This research employs a work design approach to explore the impact of workload, supervision, and task characteristics on program implementation, considering the unique context of the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on school organization and teaching.

Psychosocial interventions to develop social-emotional competencies at school have shown effectiveness in improving academic performance (Corcoran et al., 2018). A comprehensive approach involving family and community yields positive results in social and emotional adjustment, behavioral adjustment, and internalizing symptoms (Goldberg et al., 2019). These programs are implemented during a critical developmental period, aiming for long-term effects and broad population access (Maya-Jariego, 2021). The study examines two programs: (a) Pisotón, a psycho-educational intervention promoting socio-emotional skills, and (b) Flexible Methodologies, academic leveling and reinforcement modules for students facing difficulties in compulsory education. Pisotón, implemented for over 20 years, utilizes fun activities and group dynamics to promote emotional development and conflict resolution (Manrique-Palacio et al., 2018). Flexible Methodologies offers two versions: Brújula, for illiterate children (9-14 years), and Accelerated Learning, for students struggling to complete primary education (10-15 years) (Ministry of Education of Colombia, 2010). This comparison allows for analysis of programs with differing organizational structures and teacher work designs, recognizing that psychoeducational programs are embedded within pre-existing organizational structures that condition their operation.

This study investigated organizational factors determining the implementation of Pisotón and Flexible Methodologies in 72 public schools in Barranquilla, Colombia. Data were collected from 102 teachers implementing these programs before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study employed a mixed-methods approach. Quantitative data were gathered using the Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ) (Morgeson and Humphrey, 2006), assessing task characteristics, cognitive complexity, social aspects, and work context. A program implementation questionnaire measured dose, fidelity, and frequency, with perceived effectiveness assessed using a Likert scale. Personal and class-group data included teaching experience, student demographics (including Venezuelan immigrants and internally displaced students), and socio-demographic data. Qualitative data were obtained through 70 video-recorded interviews, analyzed using thematic content analysis with an inductive strategy involving six independent observers and a focus group to achieve consensus. Data analysis involved descriptive statistics, comparisons of means, bivariate correlations, regression models, and cluster analysis, with qualitative data used for triangulation. The WDQ, a 77-item self-report measure using a Likert scale, evaluated various dimensions of work design. A program implementation questionnaire assessed dose (duration, hours of application, preparation, and direct work), fidelity (implementation alignment with design, frequency, materials, manual use, and training), and frequency (days between sessions). Perceived effectiveness was assessed using a 5-point Likert scale. Personal and class-group data were collected, and qualitative interviews explored teachers' experiences and program implementation changes following confinement. Data were analyzed using SPSS Statistics 26. Descriptive analysis with t-tests compared implementation before and after confinement. School comparisons used t-tests. Bivariate correlations, regression models, and cluster analysis examined the relationship between organizational factors and program implementation. Qualitative interview data were used for triangulation. The K-means cluster analysis was used to explore the various types of existing educational organizations. The analysis was performed with 10 iterations and a convergence criterion of 0.02.

The COVID-19 pandemic significantly altered program implementation. Teachers reported implementing 59.88% (SD = 20.05) of planned activities, with a reduction in student numbers (from 28.74 to 19.84) and a 40% decrease in program dose. Significant reductions were observed in time per activity, hours with students, and total monthly implementation hours. Frequency also decreased. Despite training, fidelity decreased across all dimensions (Table 2). Management support also declined after confinement (Table 2). While schools generally provided cohesive environments with strong social support, differences existed between Pisotón and Flexible Methodologies. Pisotón implementers perceived greater social interaction and interdependence (Table 4). Flexible Methodologies implementers reported poorer working conditions and ergonomics (Table 4). Before confinement, task characteristics (autonomy and intrinsic factors) were positively correlated with implementation fidelity and perceived effectiveness. Working conditions and ergonomics negatively correlated with time spent per activity. After confinement, few significant correlations existed, except for feedback and fidelity (Supplementary Appendices I and II). Regression analysis (Table 5) showed that before confinement, task and work context characteristics significantly predicted dose, fidelity, and perceived effectiveness. After confinement, no models were significant. Cluster analysis identified two school types: Cluster 1 (high scores on all work characteristics) and Cluster 2 (lower scores, particularly in social aspects and working conditions) (Table 6). Cluster 1 schools dedicated fewer hours to program implementation but displayed higher management support, teamwork, fidelity, and perceived effectiveness. Cluster 2 schools had a higher proportion of students from displaced families and used Flexible Methodologies more frequently. Qualitative data confirmed the importance of school headmasters, academic coordinators, and colleague networks in program implementation, particularly during confinement. Teacher workload significantly affected implementation, particularly with diverse student populations. Hierarchical supervision helped maintain implementation intensity despite increased workload.

The study's findings demonstrate that organizational characteristics, specifically teacher work design, significantly influence psychoeducational program implementation. The contrasting organizational structures of Pisotón (integrated into existing classes) and Flexible Methodologies (specialized intervention) influenced supervision and control processes. Continuous monitoring, more prevalent in Flexible Methodologies, enhanced program sustainability and resilience during the pandemic. Task characteristics strongly correlated with implementation fidelity and perceived effectiveness, aligning with previous research highlighting the importance of organizational capacity (Domitrovich et al., 2015; Thaker et al., 2008). Task design is a critical organizational factor (Durlak and DuPre, 2008). The COVID-19 pandemic drastically reduced program intensity, increasing workload and necessitating adaptations. Parental involvement increased, and informal teacher networks strengthened. Smaller class sizes facilitated personalized adaptations, similar to findings in other studies (Peavy et al., 2020; Annis et al., 2020). Confinement tested schools' organizational capacity, with autonomy and teacher motivation aiding the transition and program adjustments. However, the social component was significantly affected. Despite challenges, skill development in key employees improved organizational resilience (Lengnick-Hall et al., 2011). The pandemic context highlighted how changes in the work environment affected implementation quality, varying based on pre-existing organizational contexts. School principal leadership is essential for intervention sustainability, especially in crises (Lyon et al., 2018).

This study reveals that the work environment significantly impacts the quality of psychoeducational program implementation in schools. The COVID-19 pandemic's disruption affected both the work environment and implementation quality, yet continuous supervision and team cohesion maintained fidelity. Teacher task characteristics, particularly autonomy, variety, and significance, are crucial for program fidelity. While the pandemic significantly impacted implementation, hierarchical supervision predicted intervention continuity. Integrating programs into school operations and designing teacher roles with high autonomy and meaning enhances implementation. Future research should investigate how program integration into stable organizational structures ensures continuity during crises and protects educational services, especially for vulnerable groups.

The study's sample size, focusing on a limited number of schools and two programs at different educational levels, limits generalizability. The differing structures of Pisotón and Flexible Methodologies constrain comparison possibilities, though this also suggests future research exploring organizational conditions for service continuity in crises. The reliance on teacher-reported effectiveness needs further validation through longitudinal analysis comparing implementation with student outcomes (socio-emotional skills and academic performance).