The marketing of national and state parks is a growing area of tourism research due to its economic and community importance. State parks, offering unique experiences and various recreational activities, attract both domestic and international visitors. From a branding perspective, state parks can be viewed as an umbrella brand with multiple benefits for stakeholders. With over 4000 national/state parks globally attracting millions of visitors annually, their economic contribution is substantial, including job creation and revenue generation. For instance, US state parks alone contribute billions of dollars to the economy. Despite their economic significance, state parks have historically been undermarketed, partly due to a prioritization of resource preservation and a lack of emphasis on public sector marketing. However, growing concerns about sustainability and high tourism demand are driving a shift towards strategic marketing approaches for state parks to ensure sustainable tourism. This study addresses the under-researched area of the role of brand image in connection with visitor emotions and place attachment in influencing revisit intentions. It aims to understand (1) the relationship between different brand image categories (functional, symbolic, experiential) and visitor emotions (pleasure and arousal); (2) the relationship between visitor emotions and place identity (a key component of place attachment); and (3) the moderating effect of national culture on the relationships between brand image, emotions, place identity, and revisit intention.

Brand image is a central concept in marketing research, reflecting how consumers feel about a brand. Dobni and Zinkhan (1990) defined brand image as the meaning consumers associate with a product based on their experiences and perceptions, encompassing functional, emotional, and symbolic benefits. Numerous studies across various contexts support this definition, highlighting the importance of these image components in consumer brand attachment. Advertising plays a critical role in shaping brand image by influencing consumer perception and behavior. Destination branding utilizes similar techniques to create positive images in the minds of tourists, with destination image encompassing beliefs, emotions, and impressions about a place. The components of destination image commonly include cognitive, affective, and conative aspects. While cognitive and conative aspects have been extensively studied, the affective attribute (emotions) requires more attention, particularly in the context of state parks, where differentiation may be less pronounced than in other contexts. This study draws on the concept of brand image from 'Brand Concept Management' (Park et al., 1986), which identifies three basic image components derived from consumer needs: functional, symbolic, and experiential. These components can be leveraged through different marketing strategies to appeal to diverse cultural groups. The study also explores the dimensions of emotion (pleasure and arousal) as fundamental aspects of the affective dimension, impacting consumer behavior. Place attachment, encompassing place identity (emotional/symbolic importance) and place dependence (functionality/usability), is another significant area of investigation. Since this study focuses on the symbolic aspect, only place identity is considered. Place identity signifies the emotional and symbolic importance of a place, leading to personal identification and revisit intentions. Finally, the influence of national culture on consumer behavior is acknowledged, highlighting its potential to affect the relationships between brand image, emotions, place identity, and revisit intention. Hofstede's cultural dimensions (individualism/collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, masculinity/femininity, long-term orientation, indulgence/restraint) provide a framework for understanding cultural influences on consumer behavior, particularly in tourism contexts.

This quantitative study employed a survey instrument developed using validated measures from consumer behavior, hospitality, tourism, and marketing literature. The instrument measured seven dimensions across four constructs: brand image (functional, symbolic, experiential), emotions (pleasure and arousal), place identity, and revisit intention. A 5-point Likert scale was used for all 23 items, and the questionnaire was pre-tested with experts. Data was collected from respondents in India, Korea, and the US using a purposeful sampling method, targeting individuals who had visited a state park in the past three years and were over 18 years old. A total of 1400 surveys were collected, resulting in 812 usable responses (191 from India, 404 from the US, and 217 from Korea). Data collection occurred over 10 months in 2020-2021 via social media channels (LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram) and email. The sample characteristics revealed a majority of female respondents across all countries, with a median age between 20 and 49 years. The sample represented diverse educational backgrounds and income levels. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed to assess the reliability and validity of the measurement scales. The results indicated acceptable model fit, convergent validity, internal consistency, and discriminant validity. Hierarchical regression analysis using SPSS 22 was employed to test the hypotheses. Moderated regression analysis, based on Baron and Kenny’s (1986) procedures, was used to examine the moderating influence of national culture on the relationships between the variables.

The CFA results showed acceptable model fit (χ² = 1013.050, df = 246, p < 0.001, χ²/df = 4.118, CFI = 0.925, TLI = 0.908, NFI = 0.904, RMSEA = 0.062), convergent validity (CR values ranged from 0.782 to 0.939, AVE values from 0.547 to 0.838), and discriminant validity (AVE values greater than the squared correlation coefficients). Hypothesis testing through regression analysis revealed that: Hypotheses 2-9 were fully supported, while Hypothesis 1 was not. Symbolic (β = 0.131, p < 0.01) and experiential (β = 0.389, p < 0.01) images significantly influenced pleasure. Functional (β = 0.169, p < 0.01), symbolic (β = 0.082, p < 0.01), and experiential (β = 0.440, p < 0.01) images significantly influenced arousal. Pleasure (β = 0.289, p < 0.01) and arousal (β = 0.308, p < 0.01) significantly affected place identity, and place identity (β = 0.469, p < 0.01) significantly affected revisit intention. Moderated regression analysis partially supported Hypothesis 10 (national culture's moderating impact). National culture moderated the relationships between brand image and emotions, and between place identity and revisit intention. Specific findings regarding the moderating effects of national culture varied across the different relationships and countries. For example, national culture moderated the relationship of functional image with pleasure, showing a negative effect in India and a positive effect in Korea, while showing no significant relationship in the US. Similar varied effects were found for other relationships and country pairs.

This study contributes to the literature by examining the largely unexplored impact of brand image on state park visitor decision-making, considering multiple image dimensions (functional, symbolic, experiential) and the moderating role of national culture. The findings highlight the importance of symbolic and experiential images in driving pleasure and arousal, leading to stronger place identity and revisit intention. The lack of influence of functional image on pleasure suggests that functional aspects of state parks may not be primary motivations for visitors. The results underscore the importance of aligning marketing strategies with the cultural values of the target audience. For example, promoting the symbolic aspects of state parks (e.g., peace, sustainability) may be more effective in collectivist cultures like Korea, while emphasizing unique experiences and personal achievement might be better suited for individualistic cultures like the US. The varied moderating effects of national culture highlight the need for nuanced and culturally-sensitive marketing campaigns for state parks.

This study provides valuable insights into the interplay of brand image, visitor emotions, place identity, and national culture in shaping state park visitation decisions. The findings emphasize the significance of symbolic and experiential images in fostering positive emotions and place attachment, ultimately influencing revisit intentions. The moderating role of national culture underscores the importance of tailoring marketing strategies to specific cultural contexts. Future research could explore other cultural models, use probability sampling, and investigate the multi-dimensional aspects of place attachment.

The study's limitations include the use of convenience sampling (social media and email), potentially limiting the generalizability of findings. The reliance on Hofstede's cultural dimensions may not capture the full complexity of cultural influences. Furthermore, the study focuses solely on place identity, neglecting the potentially important aspect of place dependence. Future studies could address these limitations by employing probability sampling methods, incorporating a wider range of cultural dimensions, and exploring the multi-dimensional nature of place attachment.