The increasing prevalence of digital technologies in education has spurred the development of new learning environments and resources. This has led to the adoption of innovative teaching approaches in higher education, such as the flipped classroom (FC) model. The FC model offers students access to pre-recorded lectures and materials online, allowing for in-class time to be dedicated to interactive activities and discussions. The COVID-19 pandemic further accelerated the need for technology-based teaching methods due to restrictions on in-person learning. This study examines the effectiveness of the FC model in a specific context during the pandemic.

Several studies have explored the effectiveness of flipped classroom models, both in fully online and blended learning environments. Chick et al. (2020) found positive outcomes regarding student satisfaction and interest. Latorre-Cosculluela et al. (2021) highlighted the FC model's ability to foster active learning and the development of 21st-century skills. Other research emphasized the role of videos, recorded lectures, and group discussions in stimulating student engagement during the pandemic (Agarwal and Kaushik, 2020; Guraya, 2020). However, challenges related to technology access, teacher digital literacy, and student anxiety have also been noted (Agung et al., 2020; ElSaheli-Elhage, 2021; Islam et al., 2020). This study contributes to the existing literature by focusing on the specific impact of the FC model on student motivation and learning during the pandemic.

This quasi-experimental study employed a pre-test and post-test design using an ad hoc questionnaire to assess student perceptions. The questionnaire, which contained 36 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale, measured self-perceived motivation, digital competence, learning effectiveness, and views on democratic education. The study involved 179 second-year student teachers from the University of Murcia, Spain, enrolled in a Didactics of Social Sciences course. The course was delivered using a blended learning model, with synchronous Zoom sessions on Fridays and asynchronous online learning using pre-recorded lectures and multimedia activities. In-class sessions were held on Wednesdays, focused on practical tasks and group work. Data analysis was performed using SPSS v.26.0, including Cronbach's Alpha for reliability, Bartlett's test of sphericity and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) for validity, and non-parametric tests (Wilcoxon, Mann-Whitney U, Kruskal-Wallis) to compare pre- and post-test scores across different subgroups (gender, prior experience with FC, and digital competence).

The results indicated positive perceptions of both motivation and learning throughout the course. While there were no significant differences between pre- and post-test scores for overall motivation, students with prior experience with the FC model reported significantly higher motivation. Students with higher digital competence were more extrinsically motivated, whereas those with lower digital competence showed more intrinsic motivation to improve future teaching practice. Regarding learning, positive perceptions were observed both before and after the implementation of the flipped classroom. Students with prior experience showed significantly higher ratings for planning, managing, and assessment processes. Practical classroom activities, small group work, quizzes, and rewards were highly valued by students. There were some differences based on gender, although not statistically significant in many cases. Students with higher e-proficiency scored significantly higher on small group activities and use of computer tools. Overall, medians for most items were between 3 and 4, indicating sufficient self-perceived motivation and positive learning experiences.

The findings suggest that the flipped classroom model, even during the pandemic, can be an effective approach for fostering student motivation and positive learning experiences. The positive perceptions of the various strategies and techniques used, particularly practical activities and interactive quizzes, align with previous research on gamification and active learning. The statistically significant differences found based on prior experience highlight the potential benefits of integrating the FC model earlier in students' education. The differences based on e-competence highlight the need to address the digital divide and support students' digital skills development. Although the overall results were positive, the lower scores compared to pre-pandemic studies might indicate that the pandemic-related restrictions had some negative effects on student attitudes and motivation.

This study demonstrates the potential of the flipped classroom model to effectively engage students and enhance their learning experience even under the challenging conditions of a pandemic. The positive student perceptions and the significant differences observed highlight the importance of experience and digital competence in maximizing the benefits of this approach. Future research should focus on refining the model to address limitations and further explore the impact of specific strategies on diverse student populations. Comparative studies across different educational contexts and subject areas would also enrich the understanding of the model’s broader applicability.

This study is limited by its specific context (a single course at one university) and the reliance on self-reported data. The results may not be generalizable to other educational settings or subject matter. The cross-sectional nature of the study does not allow for establishing causal relationships between the FC model and learning outcomes. Future research should address these limitations by using longitudinal studies, broader samples, and various assessment methods.