Effectiveness of the flipped classroom model on students' self-reported motivation and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic

The paper addresses how the flipped classroom (FC) model affects university students’ self-reported motivation and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. It situates the study within the rapid expansion of digital technologies in higher education and the consequent shift from teacher-centered to student-centered pedagogies. During COVID-19, restrictions on face-to-face instruction accelerated the adoption of technology-enabled models such as FC, which blends pre-class independent study (e.g., videos, LMS resources) with in-class collaborative activities. The study’s purpose is to analyze students’ perceptions of motivation and learning under FC amid pandemic-related constraints, and to examine moderating factors such as gender, prior FC experience, and digital competence.

The article synthesizes recent literature on FC and technology-enhanced learning, especially under COVID-19. Prior studies report that FC supports engagement, satisfaction, and development of 21st-century skills, leveraging videos, recorded lectures, and group discussions (e.g., Bergmann & Sams, 2012; Chick et al., 2020; Latorre-Cosculluela et al., 2021; Colomo-Magaña et al., 2020; Smith & Boscak, 2021; Monzonís et al., 2020). Gamified elements (e.g., quizzes, points) may boost motivation and social interaction (Aşıksoy & Özdamlı, 2016; Wanner & Palmer, 2015; Fontana, 2020; Park & Kim, 2021), though mechanisms require further research (Mekler et al., 2017). Challenges include digital divide issues, overreliance on technology, reduced personal contact, and educators’ digital readiness and content adaptation burdens (Agung et al., 2020; Clark-Wilson et al., 2020; ElSaheli-Elhage, 2021; Cevikbas & Kaiser, 2020). Students’ anxiety and depressive symptoms in online learning are also noted (Islam et al., 2020; Ardan et al., 2020). The authors highlight the need for continued examination and adaptation of FC in emergent e-learning contexts.

Design: Quasi-experimental pre-test/post-test design using identical ad hoc questionnaires to assess changes in self-perceived motivation and learning under a flipped classroom model. Quantitative analysis included descriptive statistics and non-parametric tests. Participants and context: 179 second-year Primary Education student teachers (University of Murcia, Spain) enrolled in the compulsory core unit Didactics of Social Sciences (2020/2021). Age range 19–39 (M=20.02, SD=3.32); 43 men (24.02%) and 136 women (75.98%); 0.56% repeaters. Informed consent obtained. Intervention/course implementation: Blended FC over four months (Sep–Dec 2020). Synchronous sessions on Fridays via Zoom (real-time presentations; recordings stored on LMS). Asynchronous study via prerecorded video lectures and multimedia activities with weekly deadlines through the LMS. Face-to-face in-class sessions on Wednesdays focused on practical, collaborative tasks (groups split into three subgroups for safety). The LMS provided resource access, tracking, and motivational elements. Instrument: Ad hoc 36-item questionnaire with four sections: self-perceived motivation, self-perceived acquisition of digital competencies, perceived effectiveness on learning processes, and views on learning of democratic education. Likert scale 1 (very poor) to 5 (excellent). Reliability and validity: Analyzed in SPSS v26. Cronbach’s alpha overall α=0.89; motivation α=0.86; learning processes α=0.83. Bartlett’s test of sphericity significant (p<0.001) across sections. PCA: first block (motivation) 2 dimensions explaining 58.47% of variance; KMO=0.906. Second block (learning processes) 2 dimensions explaining 53.24%; KMO=0.861. Data analysis: Descriptive statistics (means, SDs, medians). Non-parametric tests: Wilcoxon signed-rank for pre–post comparisons; Mann–Whitney U for two-group comparisons (e.g., gender; prior FC experience); Kruskal–Wallis for comparisons by e-competence level (high/medium/low).

- Overall perceptions: - Students reported positive perceptions of motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) and learning under FC during COVID-19. - Motivation by gender (Table 1): - Male students’ extrinsic motivation slightly higher than intrinsic; females similar across types. - Pre–post: males’ intrinsic motivation increased slightly; females decreased slightly in both types. No significant pre–post differences overall for motivation (Wilcoxon ns). - Motivation by prior FC experience and e-competence (Table 2): - Students with prior FC experience reported higher self-perceived motivation than those without. Mann–Whitney U showed significant E vs NE differences in several intrinsic items, e.g.: to excel in class (Pre p<0.001), to learn new active methodologies (Pre p=0.016), to improve future teaching practice (Pre p=0.019), to interact socially more effectively (Pre p=0.029), to excel in online classes (Pre p=0.015). Overall Wilcoxon pre–post for motivation not significant. - Higher e-competence associated with greater motivation to excel in class (Kruskal–Wallis p=0.010 Post). Lower e-competence group showed comparatively higher intrinsic motivation to improve future teaching practice. - Motivational strategies by gender (Table 3): - Female students rated small group activities significantly higher than males (Mann–Whitney U p=0.004). Other strategy ratings showed no significant gender differences. - Most strategy items had medians 3–4; the lowest e-competence group tended to score similar/higher in post-tests vs pre. - Learning perceptions by gender (Table 5): - Positive perceptions before and after FC; males scored lower in pre but higher in post for interaction and self-evaluation. No significant gender differences overall. - Learning by prior experience and e-competence (Table 6): - Significant E vs NE differences in planning, managing, and assessing processes (Mann–Whitney U p<0.001 across items), with experienced students rating higher. - No significant differences across e-competence subgroups for these learning items. - Strategies supporting learning (Tables 7–8): - Practical classroom activities, small group work, quizzes, and rewards were rated highly (medians around 4+). - Significant E vs NE differences favoring experienced students for: FC videos (p=0.034), practical activities (p=0.009), Kahoot! quizzes (p=0.044), small group activities (p=0.027). - By e-competence: significant differences for small group activities (p=0.012) and student portal/IT tools (p<0.001), with higher e-competence students rating them higher. - Psychometrics: Questionnaire demonstrated good internal consistency (overall α=0.89; motivation α=0.86; learning α=0.83) and construct validity (significant Bartlett’s; PCA with acceptable variance and KMO).

Findings indicate that despite pandemic-related disruptions, students perceived the flipped classroom as motivating and beneficial for learning. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations remained adequate, with students expressing interest in learning active methodologies and improving future teaching practice. Gamified and interactive elements (e.g., Kahoot! quizzes, points/prizes) and collaborative activities supported motivation and engagement, aligning with prior literature. Prior experience with FC emerged as an important factor: experienced students reported higher motivation and stronger perceived gains in planning, management, and assessment processes, suggesting cumulative benefits from repeated exposure to FC pedagogy. Digital competence also shaped perceptions: higher e-competence students valued collaborative and IT-mediated tasks more, whereas lower e-competence students viewed FC as a pathway to enhance future teaching practice. Perceived learning benefitted from expanded use of online resources, increased interaction, and self-regulatory practices consistent with student-centered, technology-mediated learning. However, some pre–post differences in motivation were not significant, and gender differences were minimal, except for higher female appreciation of small group activities. The results underscore the relevance of well-supported LMS environments, structured synchronous/asynchronous components, and gamified, collaborative in-class tasks to sustain motivation and learning during emergency remote and blended instruction.

The study contributes evidence that a flipped classroom model, implemented in a blended format during COVID-19, was positively perceived in terms of motivation and self-reported learning among education undergraduates. Key supports included gamified quizzes, practical activities, small group work, and robust LMS-mediated resources. Prior FC experience amplified perceived benefits, and higher e-competence enhanced appreciation of collaborative and digital tools. Recommendations include: expanding FC exposure across courses to build familiarity and cumulative benefits; maintaining a strong suite of digital resources and collaboration tools within LMS; and tailoring strategies to students’ digital competence levels. Future research should triangulate self-reports with objective learning outcomes, examine the mechanisms of motivational elements (e.g., gamification), and replicate across multiple courses and contexts to strengthen generalizability.

- Single-course, single-institution context limits generalizability; results reflect one implementation during a unique pandemic semester. - Reliance on self-reported perceptions rather than objective achievement measures; questionnaire’s impersonal nature may introduce interpretation variance. - Some analyses showed no significant pre–post changes for motivation, suggesting limited detectable change over the short term. - Potential confounds from pandemic-related stressors (e.g., digital divide, reduced face-to-face contact, technology dependence) may have influenced responses. - Data sharing constraints due to participant privacy; datasets available on reasonable request but not public.