Developing social and civic competence in secondary education through the implementation and evaluation of teaching units and educational environments

The study addresses how secondary students develop social and civic competence—particularly active and critical democratic citizenship—through specific teaching methodologies and learning environments in social science (history) classrooms in Spain. Motivated by international findings that adolescents struggle to build civic awareness and identity, the research seeks to evaluate whether two designed teaching units can foster these competences. The central research objective is to assess the effects of implementing the units “Athens, the origin of democracy” and “The Maze: Us and them” on students’ social and civic competence, and to characterize the educational environments that support this development. The work is grounded in the premise that citizenship education is a core aim of schooling and that history, taught through inquiry and active methodologies, is a powerful vehicle for cultivating democratic understanding and participation.

International research reports a gap between the goal of educating democratic citizens and classroom practices that often remain transmissive (Tutiaux-Guillón, 2003, 2009). Across the UK, Italy, Switzerland, and Belgium, progress at the curricular level coexists with the need for schools to function democratically and offer participatory experiences linking classroom knowledge to civic action (Trafford, 2008; Mattozi, 2008; Heimberg, 2010; Rey and Staszweski, 2004). Work on citizenship education and identity construction via historical narratives (Barca; Schmidt) highlights the role of history in shaping identities and historical awareness (Barca and Schmidt, 2013; Pinto, 2013; Santacana and Martínez, 2013). In Spain, studies underscore history’s potential to develop social and civic competence using relevant social problems, interactive learning, and critical reflection to counter stereotypes and build democratic citizenship (Pagès and Oller, 2005; Pagès and Santisteban, 2010; Valls, 2009; Prats et al., 2017; Molina et al., 2013). The Alpha II project examines how school history and textbooks shape collective memory (Carretero, 2007; Carretero and Borrell, 2008; Bromley, 2009; Mejía, 2009). Research on students’ conceptions of citizenship indicates the need for learning environments that promote participation and commitment, advocating for active methodologies, democratic classroom management, and engagement with controversial historical issues (López-Facal, 2011; Molina et al., 2013; García-Pérez and de Alba, 2008; Armas and López-Facal, 2012). Additional literature emphasizes that effective citizenship education depends on teachers’ capacity to create participatory spaces and design learning environments that integrate activities, climate, and relationships systemically (Duarte, 2003; Antúnez, 2013; Castañeda, 2019; Gil-Jaurena, 2012; Sánchez-Melero et al., 2016).

Design: Qualitative observational, hermeneutic-interpretive study with ethnographic perspective to capture accounts from teachers and students in real classroom settings. Objectives: (a) Evaluate the formative capacity of two teaching units (“Athens” and “The Maze”) for developing social and civic competence, focusing on critical and active citizenship; (b) Identify characteristic elements of the ad hoc learning environments created for implementation. Context and materials: Five teaching units were developed overall; this paper analyzes two: “Athens, the origin of democracy” (1st-year secondary, focuses on types of participation, distinctions among dictatorship, direct and representative democracy, comparison of Athenian and current Spanish systems; includes source analysis and a dramatization) and “The Maze: Us and them” (implemented across Social Sciences, Culture and Values, and Philosophy in later years; uses gamification/role-playing via Classcraft LMS to explore identity/difference through the Roman Empire, Nazi Germany, and dystopian futures). Participants and sampling: Subjective sampling of interested and accessible centers. Two units were implemented across five class groups in four secondary schools in Catalonia (ESO years 3–4 and 1st-year high school for The Maze; two 1st-year ESO groups for Athens). Overall sample: 110 students; 5 teachers; observations by 5 researchers. Data collection: Fieldwork January–June 2018 in three stages: (1) Observer training sessions to calibrate observation and ensure reliability; (2) Design of an observation guide and field-note template; non-participant, direct, open observations (~1 hour/session), with descriptive-narrative field notes and memoranda; auxiliary audio/photos with consent and ethics approval; (3) Ongoing group sessions among researchers to share impressions, coordinate coding, discuss saturation and emerging categories. Total of 19 field-note records (8 Athens; 11 The Maze), each accompanied by a memorandum. Analysis: Transcription followed by qualitative content analysis using QSR NVivo 12. Three levels: (1) Initial reading and open coding to identify units of meaning; (2) Construction of a definitive category system through deductive (theory/prior studies) and inductive (emergent) processes, with consensus after independent coding and group discussion; (3) Sequential analysis and interpretation aligned with theoretical framework. Final categories (Table 2 framework): I) Contextualization (center/student characteristics); II) Adequacy of space (furniture, real–virtual interaction, technology); III) Assessment of teaching methodology (dynamics, resources, timing, sequencing, adaptation/modification); IV) Competence development of democratic citizenship: (1) Critical citizenship (skills, beliefs, values of cooperation, solidarity, inclusion of diversity), (2) Active citizenship (participation and civic engagement observed); V) Student motivation (intrinsic/extrinsic/meaning); VI) Classroom climate (cooperation, respect, roles). Comparative coding and visualizations (word clouds; cluster analysis) examined relationships among categories and competence development.

• Both units demonstrated formative value for developing democratic, active, and critical citizenship. Observed classroom environments were critical, inclusive, and participatory. • Comparative coding percentages (references coded to competence categories): - Athens: Active citizenship 52.94%, Critical citizenship 47.06% (balanced development). - The Maze: Active citizenship 60.87%, Critical citizenship 39.13% (slightly greater emphasis on active citizenship). • Evidence of active citizenship development included: enhanced responsibility and ethical stances regarding social and political issues; understanding participation as a right and practice (e.g., analogies between Athenian ecclesia and school boards; inclusion of all school community members in decision-making); positioning against discrimination (gender, origin, beliefs). • Evidence of critical citizenship development included: reflective engagement with justice, freedom, and equality; analysis of controversial issues and minority groups (women, slaves, the poor) in Classical Athens; comparison to modern forms of discrimination and totalitarianism (e.g., Nazism); rejection of eugenicist narratives; focus on human rights and social injustices observed in students' local context. • Active methodologies were central: inquiry/discovery learning, dialogic questioning, analysis of historical sources, dramatization (Athens), and gamification/role-play via Classcraft (The Maze). These approaches fostered student motivation and participation. • NVivo word-frequency visualizations: Active citizenship node prominently featured terms like teacher, women, question, law, answer, slaves, students, Germany; Critical citizenship node highlighted people, poor, teacher, democracy, question, answer, citizens, slaves—indicating strong focus on social groups, inclusion/exclusion, and democratic concepts. • Cluster analysis indicated that critical citizenship co-occurred with contextualization, classroom climate, and student motivation, whereas active citizenship shared higher similarity with teaching methodology—underscoring the role of pedagogical design and classroom environment in competence development.

The findings substantiate that history, taught through active, inquiry-based methodologies within deliberately designed learning environments, effectively supports the development of both active and critical democratic citizenship. The observed balance (Athens) and emphasis on participatory engagement (The Maze) demonstrate that method and environment are as crucial as content. Teachers' orchestration of dialog, source analysis, dramatization/gamification, and structured debates cultivated climates conducive to participation, critical reflection, and ethical reasoning about contemporary and historical social problems. The dendrogram’s associations imply that to foster critical citizenship educators must attend to classroom climate, motivation, and contextualization, while the exercise of active citizenship is strongly tied to intentional methodological choices. These results address the research question by providing evidence that specific, well-designed teaching units in social sciences can measurably promote civic competences and by identifying the environmental and pedagogical characteristics that enable such growth. For the field, the study reinforces the centrality of history education and teacher agency in creating democratic learning spaces that mirror the deliberative, inclusive processes of democratic societies.

This study demonstrates that two purposefully designed teaching units—“Athens, the origin of democracy” and “The Maze: Us and them”—can foster social and civic competence in secondary students, advancing both active participation and critical democratic awareness. The key contribution lies not only in the curricular content but in the active, participatory methodologies and democratic learning environments shaped by teachers. Implications include: (1) affirming history as a pivotal subject for building democratic awareness; (2) emphasizing teachers’ roles as designers of inquiry-rich, dialogic, and inclusive classrooms; and (3) recommending systemic support through initial and ongoing teacher education. Future directions proposed by the authors include revising secondary teacher training syllabi to prioritize active citizenship education, defending and strengthening the Humanities in curricula, and democratizing school/classroom governance to promote participation. Further research should identify and specify the characteristics of learning environments most favorable to the development of active and critical citizenship to scale and sustain these outcomes.

The study is qualitative and observational with subjective sampling of interested and accessible centers, which may limit generalizability. The context is restricted to five class groups in four schools in Catalonia (110 students) and specific subjects (Social Sciences, Culture and Values, Philosophy). Data are based on 19 field notes by five researchers observing five teachers over a single semester, which may not capture longer-term effects. While NVivo-supported coding and group consensus procedures were employed, results rely on interpretive analysis of classroom observations rather than standardized outcome measures.