The influence of the parental child-rearing gender-role attitude on children's social adjustment in single- and two-parent families: the mediating role of intergenerational identity

The study examines how parental child-rearing gender-role attitudes (PCGA) relate to children’s social adjustment, and whether children’s identity with parents mediates this relationship, across single- and two-parent families in China. Social adjustment—encompassing interpersonal relationships, academic achievement, life skills, and mental resources—is critical for child development and is influenced by family structure and parenting styles. Prior work suggests single-parent family contexts can be associated with more difficulties in children’s adjustment, potentially due to reduced role modeling and resources. PCGA, a gender-differentiated facet of parenting, shapes children’s socialization and peer interactions. Symbolic interaction and intergenerational transmission theories suggest that children’s subjective identity with parents may mediate how parental attitudes translate into child behavior and adjustment. The study proposes and tests three hypotheses: H1, differences exist in intergenerational PCGA, identity with parents, and social adjustment between single- and two-parent families; H2, children’s identity with parents mediates the effect of parents’ PCGA on children’s social adjustment; H3, the mediating model differs between single- and two-parent families.

The literature indicates that family is the primary microsystem for gender-role socialization and adjustment (Bronfenbrenner, 1986; Endendijk et al., 2018). PCGA captures parents’ attitudes toward gendered behaviors, play, roles, and careers, which shape children’s activities and peer interactions and may perpetuate or mitigate gender stereotypes (Wood et al., 2002; Francis, 2010; Fulcher et al., 2008). Family structure modifies socialization processes; single-parent families may face constraints (e.g., reduced role modeling and resources) that influence both PCGA and child outcomes (Lee and McLanahan, 2015; Bzostek and Berger, 2017). Identity with parents, grounded in social identity and intergenerational transmission frameworks (Darling and Steinberg, 1993; Bisin and Verdier, 2000), represents children’s internalization of parental values and may condition how parenting attitudes affect behavior. Attitude strength can drive behavior (Fazio, 1986), suggesting that higher child identity with parents could enhance the translation of PCGA into adaptive outcomes. Prior evidence also links high-quality parent-child relationships with better social adjustment (Krikken et al., 2012). Together, the literature supports a mediated pathway from PCGA to child social adjustment via identity, potentially varying by family structure.

Design and setting: Cross-sectional survey using convenience sampling across 20 middle schools in Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China. Participants: 5335 questionnaires distributed; 4951 returned (92.80%); after removing 288 invalid, 4663 dyads analyzed (effective rate 94.18%). Family structure: 931 single-parent (20%), 3732 two-parent (80%). Children aged 14–18 years (M=14.76, SD=2.37); 48.9% male (n=2278), 51.1% female (n=2385). Heads of household overall: fathers 47.3% (n=2205), mothers 52.7% (n=2458). In single-parent households, 63.6% father-headed (n=592), 36.4% mother-headed (n=339); in two-parent households, 43.2% father-headed (n=1613), 56.8% mother-headed (n=2119). Parental education: 6.7% below junior high, 45.8% junior high, 30.8% high school, 16.7% college+. Monthly family income: 27.8% < $687, 44.0% $687–$1373, 18.2% $1374–$2061, 10.0% ≥ $2061. Ethics and procedure: Approved by Soochow University IRB (KY20220564B). Informed consent obtained from students and guardians with opt-out for parents. Children completed questionnaires in class; parents (main caregiver) completed at home and returned via school. Child and parent questionnaires were matched; cases with >20% missing or invalid patterns were excluded. Measures: - Parental child-rearing gender-role attitude (PCGA; Chen et al., 2018): 39 items, 7 dimensions (personality perceptions/expectations; behavioral discipline; housework division; leisure activities; physical environment; career development; value transmission), covering male and female parenting attitudes. 5-point Likert (1–5), higher scores reflect more egalitarian attitudes. Reliability: α=0.93 overall; male parenting α=0.85; female parenting α=0.88. - Social adjustment (Chen et al., 2016; based on Yang and Jin, 2007): 33 items; four dimensions (interpersonal relationships, academic achievement, life skills, mental resources). 5-point Likert (1–5). Higher scores indicate better adjustment. Reliability: α=0.97 overall; subscales α=0.94, 0.93, 0.86, 0.91 respectively. - Identity with parents: Children’s identity with parents’ PCGA measured via Chen et al. (2018) items scored dichotomously (0=disagree, 1=agree); average score (0–1) indicates strength of identity. Parallel measure for parents’ identity with grandparents collected to examine intergenerational differences. Common method bias: Harman’s single-factor test yielded 10 factors (eigenvalues >1); first factor explained 22.56% (<40%), indicating no serious common method bias. Analysis: SPSS 25.0 for descriptive statistics, independent-sample t-tests (comparisons across family structures and generations) and correlations. AMOS 23.0 for structural equation modeling (SEM) to test mediation of children’s identity (H2) and multi-group invariance across single- vs two-parent families (H3). Model fit criteria: CFI/TLI ≥ 0.90, RMSEA ≤ 0.08.

- Intergenerational PCGA: Grandparents scored higher than parents on masculinity rearing (t=4.03, p<0.01); no significant intergenerational difference for femininity rearing. - Family-structure differences in PCGA: Grandparents’ femininity rearing was higher in two-parent than single-parent families (t=−3.37, p<0.01). Parents’ masculinity and femininity rearing were both significantly higher in two-parent than single-parent families (masculinity: t=6.15, p<0.01; femininity: t=−6.98, p<0.01). - Identity with parents: No significant differences between generations (parents’ identity with grandparents vs children’s identity with parents) or between family structures; overall identity levels were high (mean ≈0.86). - Social adjustment: Both parents’ and children’s social adjustment scores were significantly higher in two-parent than single-parent families (ps<0.01). Within families, parents’ social adjustment exceeded children’s across dimensions (interpersonal, academic, life skills, mental resources). - Correlations: Parents’ PCGA (both masculinity and especially femininity rearing), children’s identity with parents, and children’s social adjustment were all positively correlated (ps<0.01). Notably, femininity rearing correlated r=0.44 with children’s social adjustment; children’s identity correlated r=0.17 with social adjustment. - Mediation (SEM): Overall mediation model fit well (χ²=39.346, df=7, χ²/df=5.621, CFI=0.998, TLI=0.995, RMSEA=0.031, SRMR=0.009). Children’s identity with parents did not mediate the link between parents’ masculinity rearing and children’s social adjustment (indirect effect=0.000, p=0.354). Identity significantly mediated the link between parents’ femininity rearing and children’s social adjustment (indirect effect=0.016, 95% CI [0.008, 0.024]). Direct and total effects on social adjustment remained significant (direct ≈0.467; total ≈0.483, ps<0.001). - Multi-group analysis: Good fit for both single-parent and two-parent models (single-parent: χ²=32.843, df=9, CFI=0.994, RMSEA=0.053; two-parent: χ²=32.827, df=7, CFI=0.998, RMSEA=0.031). Constraining paths equal across groups (Parallel Model) still fit well (χ²=76.244, df=21, CFI=0.997, RMSEA=0.021). Structural weights differed significantly (p=0.023). The path from Parents’ Masculinity Rearing to Children’s Identity differed by family structure (CRD=2.826): significant positive in single-parent families (β=0.04, p<0.05) but non-significant in two-parent families (β=−0.01, p>0.05). H1 and H2 were partially supported; H3 was supported.

Findings clarify how parental gender-role attitudes relate to children’s social adjustment and how this process varies by family structure. Two-parent families reported more egalitarian PCGA (higher masculinity and femininity rearing) and better social adjustment among both parents and children, aligning with theories that resource availability and role modeling enhance socialization. High and comparable identity with parents across structures suggests strong intergenerational alignment in the Chinese cultural context, possibly reflecting filial norms and social learning. The mediation analysis indicates that children’s identity with parents specifically channels the positive effect of parents’ femininity-rearing attitudes on children’s social adjustment. Emphasis on warmth, empathy, cooperation, and care may foster smoother parent-child interactions and internalization of adaptive social values, thereby benefiting adjustment. Masculinity-rearing attitudes did not show a mediated pathway overall; however, in single-parent families, masculinity rearing was associated with higher child identity, suggesting that in contexts of reduced parental roles/resources, traits associated with masculinity (e.g., independence, resilience) may be especially salient and internalized. This structural difference underscores how family structure shapes the mechanisms of intergenerational transmission of attitudes and their impact on adjustment. The results support interventions promoting balanced, androgynous gender-role education and enhanced parent-child communication to foster identity and social adjustment.

The study advances understanding of how PCGA and intergenerational identity influence children’s social adjustment within different family structures. There were partial intergenerational differences in PCGA, with parents generally less masculine-rearing than grandparents, and two-parent families displaying more egalitarian attitudes and better social adjustment. Children’s identity with parents mediated the link between parents’ femininity rearing and children’s social adjustment. The mediated model differed by family structure, notably for the path from masculinity rearing to children’s identity. Practically, parents should adopt androgynous gender-role education and strengthen communication to build identity and improve children’s social adjustment. Policymakers and social organizations can mitigate single-parent family risks by providing family education, psychological counseling, and parent–child communication training. Future research should include broader family structures, multi-informant designs, and longitudinal methods, and expand sampling beyond a single urban region.

- Family structure categories were limited to single- and two-parent families; other forms (e.g., remarried/stepfamilies) were not examined. - Children’s reports of parents’ attitudes were retrospective and may introduce recall bias; future studies should integrate direct parental reports. - All measures were self-reported and the cross-sectional design precludes causal inference; longitudinal designs are needed to establish temporal precedence. - The sample was drawn from a single economically developed city (Suzhou), which may limit generalizability; broader regional sampling across China is recommended.