The gendered dimensions of the anti-mask and anti-lockdown movement on social media

The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated widespread adoption of face masks and social distancing measures. However, these measures faced significant resistance, particularly from anti-mask and anti-lockdown movements. While some studies explored factors influencing compliance, research focusing on the gendered dimensions of this online resistance remains limited. This study investigates how gender is implicated in anti-pandemic discourse on social media platforms like Facebook and Instagram. The significance lies in understanding how these platforms amplify and shape public opinion, particularly during health crises, and the role gender plays in shaping this amplification. The study aims to analyze the gendered language and imagery employed within these online communities to understand their messaging and to inform public health interventions.

Existing research reveals inconsistencies in gender differences regarding adherence to COVID-19 guidelines. Some studies suggest women show greater compliance than men, while others find no significant gender difference. A French study showed a higher percentage of women among anti-maskers, exhibiting distrust in institutions. However, these studies lack a focus on the role of social media in disseminating gendered narratives about mask-wearing and lockdowns. The researchers draw upon Connell's theory of hegemonic masculinity and the concept of toxic masculinity to analyze how gender norms intersect with anti-pandemic sentiments. A gap in the literature highlighted is the lack of research analyzing gendered discourse within the anti-mask and anti-lockdown social media communities.

The study employed multimodal discourse analysis (MDM), which integrates analysis of textual and visual content, emotional appeals, and reasoning. Data was collected using CrowdTangle, employing 24 search terms related to anti-mask and anti-lockdown sentiments. A total of 4209 social media posts (2385 Instagram, 1824 Facebook) were collected. Researchers manually filtered posts containing explicit visual or textual content relating to gender, resulting in a smaller sample of 297 posts (215 Instagram, 82 Facebook). The sample consisted of posts from highly active users (top 10 on Instagram, top 100 on Facebook). The analysis focused on English-language posts. Two researchers independently coded the posts, identifying three key discourses based on recurring themes and patterns in the language and imagery.

Three major discourses emerged from the analysis: 1. **Hypermasculine Discourse:** This dominant discourse portrays men as strong, independent, and resistant to perceived government overreach. Compliance with health guidelines is framed as weak or feminine. These posts often express support for conservative political figures and reject pandemic narratives viewed as liberal propaganda. Hashtags such as #ChinaVirus, #MAGA, and #Trump2020 were frequently used. 2. **Sexist and Pejorative Portrayals of "Karen" Discourse:** This discourse uses the pejorative term "Karen" to denigrate women perceived as privileged, overly emotional, and critical of anti-mask behavior. The term is employed to discredit women who challenge anti-pandemic attitudes. This reflects a sexist double standard, where similar behavior in men is not labeled negatively. Analysis of accompanying hashtags reveals connections to conspiracy theories and anti-establishment sentiments (#agenda21, #plandemic, #covidhoax). 3. **Appropriating Freedom and Feminism Discourse:** This discourse involves women who resist restrictions, employing humor and defiance while invoking feminist rhetoric about bodily autonomy and freedom of choice. Posts use hashtags such as #CoronaFascism, #ChooseLife, and appropriate terms from feminist movements like #mybodymychoice. This reveals a strategic adoption of feminist language to support anti-pandemic viewpoints, highlighting the complexity of the movement’s rhetoric.

The findings confirm and extend previous research on gender norms and public health compliance. The association between hypermasculinity and anti-mask sentiment aligns with studies showing resistance to mask-wearing is linked to masculine ideals of toughness. The pejorative use of "Karen" demonstrates how gendered stereotypes are used to dismiss criticism. The appropriation of feminist rhetoric highlights the complex and contradictory nature of the movement’s ideology. The study suggests that public health campaigns must consider these gendered dimensions to effectively address anti-pandemic sentiments.

This study contributes to a deeper understanding of the gendered dimensions of online anti-pandemic movements. The identified discourses – hypermasculine resistance, sexist denigration of women, and strategic appropriation of feminist rhetoric – offer valuable insights for designing targeted interventions. Future research could explore broader online platforms, analyze non-English language content, and employ alternative methodologies such as content analysis to further investigate this complex phenomenon.

The study is limited to two social media platforms (Facebook and Instagram) and English-language posts, primarily focusing on the US context. The sample size, while significant, may not fully represent the diversity of the anti-mask and anti-lockdown movement globally. The manual filtering process may introduce bias, potentially overlooking subtle or implicit gender references. Future research should address these limitations by employing more comprehensive data collection strategies and diverse methodologies.