The diminutive morphological function between English and Pashto languages: a comparative study

This research explores the diminutive morphological function in English and Pashto, employing contrastive analysis to highlight similarities and differences. Morphology, the study of word formation, is crucial for understanding language productivity and speaker's lexical access during communication. Inflectional morphemes, affixes indicating grammatical function without altering syntactic structure, are central to this study. Errors in acquiring inflectional morphemes in a second language (L2) often stem from interference from the first language (L1). This study aims to pinpoint these areas of potential error for Pashto speakers learning English by comparing the diminutive function and productivity in both languages. It also investigates the impact of highly inflectional languages, specifically Greek, on the diminutive morphology of English and Pashto. The study focuses on the Yousafzai dialect of Pashto, acknowledging potential variations in other dialects, and limits its scope to inflectional bound morphemes in nouns and adjectives.

Due to a lack of direct comparative studies on English and Pashto diminutives, this review examines research on other languages including Spanish, Persian, Azerbaijani, Chinese, Bantu, and Arabic. The review highlights the generally accepted notion that Pashto's rich inflectional system contrasts with English's analytic approach to diminutives. Hägg (2016) compared English and Spanish diminutives, showing Spanish's greater productivity. Wang (2020) examined Chinese diminutives, finding that the suffix 'zi' conveys intimacy. Kazemian and Hashemi (2014) found Azerbaijani to retain more inflections than English and Persian. Salim (2013) contrasted Arabic and English noun morphology, revealing Arabic's complexity. Ibrahim (2010) showed Modern Standard Arabic's greater productivity due to extensive inflectional affixes. Joseph (2005) noted the Indo-European connection between Pashto and English, suggesting a contrastive analysis would reveal similarities and differences. Studies on Old English (Valeika and Buitkiene, 2003) highlight the loss of inflections over time, impacting productivity. Palmer (1984) compared English and Greek morphology. The literature review identified a gap in research concerning the diminutive morphological function between English and Pashto.

This qualitative study utilized library research, consulting books and previous research on diminutive morphological analysis. The study adopted a textual and archival interpretative analysis technique (Arabiat and Al-Momani, 2021) and was grounded in the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) (Lefer, 2011; Krzeszowski, 2011; Chesterman, 1998; James 1980). Data consisted of English and Pashto language segments containing inflectional morphemes in nouns and adjectives, focusing on diminutive functions. The researcher, a native Pashto speaker and English teacher, employed personal observation, triangulated with literature review findings, given the unsuitability of traditional data collection methods (recordings, interviews, questionnaires) for this type of study. Two research questions guided the analysis: 1. What are the similarities and differences in diminutive morphological function and productivity between English and Pashto in nouns and adjective categories? 2. What is the degree of foreign influence of high inflectional languages, such as Greek, on the diminutive morphological function in English and Pashto? Data analysis employed linear tables and theoretical discussion, illustrating inflectional morphemes and analyzing their specific usage. Over 80 corpus studies were consulted, with irrelevant studies excluded. The researcher also engaged with Pashto literary figures (names withheld for ethical reasons).

The analysis revealed significant differences in the inflectional morphemes of English and Pashto. Pashto exhibits extensive inflections, often involving phonological changes, particularly in forming plurals. English, in contrast, shows relatively limited inflections, using 's', 'es', or zero morphemes, with some irregular forms. Pashto's morphological richness extends to the use of diminutives, with various suffixes conveying nuances of size, affection, contempt, and deprecation. English diminutives are less productive and largely confined to a few suffixes or pre-noun modifiers like 'little' or 'small'. Table 1 illustrates the complexity of Pashto noun declensions, showing different suffixes based on gender, animacy, and case, including diminutive forms. Table 2 shows the simpler inflection system in English, where diminutives are largely absent. The study found Pashto to be richer in inflections than English, employing several diminutives, while English uses few. Pashto often associates smallness with contempt, using suffixes like 'ty', 'tay', 'gy', and 'gay' to convey pejorative meaning (e.g., 'motor' vs. 'motargay'). The vocative case in Pashto further enhances diminutive functions, adding suffixes to animal names to express contempt for humans. English has largely lost the vocative case, conveying similar meanings through different grammatical structures. The study noted the extensive noun declension system in Pashto, in contrast to English's limited system for marking plurality and possessive cases using 's'. Pashto's noun categories mark gender extensively, with phonological modifications unlike English, potentially reflecting the retention of features from earlier stages of language development. Pashto adjective formation also demonstrates greater complexity than in English. English adjectives primarily use comparative and superlative forms ('er', 'est'), while Pashto marks number and gender in adjectives, employing a broader range of diminutive expressions. The loss of inflections in English over time, as evident in the evolution from Old English to Modern English, accounts for its less productive diminutive system. The study reveals similarities between Pashto and Greek's highly inflectional nature, contrasting with English's more analytical approach. Both Pashto and Greek retain grammatical gender, enhancing their productivity. The study concludes that Pashto’s morphological system, particularly its diminutive function, shows closer resemblance to Greek than to English.

The findings address the research questions by demonstrating the significant differences in diminutive morphological function and productivity between English and Pashto. Pashto's richer inflectional system, influenced by its historical connection to highly inflectional languages like Greek, contributes to its greater productivity and nuanced expression of diminutives. The study highlights the implications for language teaching and learning, particularly for Pashto speakers learning English. Understanding the differences in diminutive expression can help address common errors and improve the effectiveness of language instruction. The contrasting systems between English and Pashto illustrate the impact of language evolution and the diverse ways languages encode meaning. The comparative analysis with Greek supports the hypothesis of historical influences shaping morphological structure.

This study reveals distinct patterns in the diminutive morphological function of English and Pashto, showing Pashto's greater productivity and similarity to Greek. Future research should explore diminutives in other languages (Swahili, Bantu, Greek), compare similar languages (Urdu, Hindi), and investigate the role of cultural factors. The findings provide valuable insights into language teaching and learning, particularly in cross-cultural communication.

The study's limitations include its focus on the Yousafzai dialect of Pashto, potentially limiting generalizability. The reliance on library research and personal observation, while appropriate given the lack of previous research in this area, might limit the scope of data analysis compared to quantitative methods. The study's qualitative nature prevents definitive conclusions about the extent of productivity differences. Further research employing broader data collection strategies is required.