Virtue, a normative concept signifying moral and social codes, has existed in both Eastern and Western societies. Its historical trajectory involves periods of decline and revival. In the West, the concept originated from the Greek word *aretē*, encompassing human excellence. While thinkers like Plato and Aristotle differed on its specifics, its core remained consistent even after the integration of Christianity. In the East, Confucianism introduced the concept, focusing on the excellence of rulers rather than the general populace. Both East and West experienced a decline in the concept's influence, seemingly due to shifts in societal values and the disruption of traditional institutions. However, the mid-20th century witnessed a resurgence, with virtue ethics (West) and neo-Confucian scholars (East) reviving academic interest. Recent research spans various cultures, linking virtue to empirical sciences and examining its depiction in national curricula. However, a gap remains in understanding how the general public, compared to educational specialists, comprehends the concept of 'virtue' within a specific culture. This study aims to explore this gap in Japan, a society influenced by both Eastern and Western traditions regarding virtue, focusing on the familiarity, image, and perceived importance of different virtues among the general public and educational specialists.

Existing research on virtue ethics can be categorized into three areas: cross-cultural studies comparing Confucian and Greco-Christian notions; empirical studies linking virtue to psychology, sociology, psychiatry, and neuroscience; and studies analyzing the concept's representation in national educational curricula. These studies highlight the lack of universal agreement on which qualities constitute virtues across cultures and historical periods. This study addresses the gap in research by directly comparing the understanding of virtue between educational specialists and the general public, acknowledging the potential influence of cultural and historical factors on this understanding. The study's exploratory nature positions it as a foundation for future, more conclusive research in this area.

This study employed a survey approach targeting both the general public (GP) and educational specialists (ESs) in Japan. The GP sample (n=997) comprised 1000 individuals (excluding three ESs) recruited through a research consulting company, stratified by age (20s-60s) and gender (1:1 ratio). ESs (n=271) were recruited via email through ten academic societies related to philosophy and education. ESs were defined as teachers at various educational levels (elementary, junior high, high school, university) and clergy from various religious backgrounds. Among the ESs, 194 were identified as professional researchers (PRs) specializing in philosophy or education, while 77 were categorized as non-professional ESs (npr-ESs). The survey included questions about demographic information (education level, occupation, age, gender, religion) and questions focusing on familiarity with the term 'virtue' (frequency of seeing, hearing, and using the word); impressions of the word (favorability); associated words (multiple-choice from a pre-defined list of 41 words); virtues whose meaning was difficult to understand (multiple-response from a list of 129 virtues categorized into six groups: Western moral virtues, Western epistemic virtues, psychological virtues, Imperial Japanese moral and epistemic virtues, Confucian virtues, and post-war Japanese moral and epistemic virtues); and virtues considered important (ranking up to five from each of the six categories). Data analysis included descriptive statistics, Fisher's exact probability test (for comparing distributions), and Holm's method (for adjusting p-values for multiplicity).

The study revealed significant differences between the GP and ESs in their understanding of virtue. First, regarding familiarity, a much larger percentage of the GP reported never seeing, hearing, or using the word 'virtue' compared to ESs. Second, while both groups generally held a favorable impression of 'virtue', the reasons behind this positive impression differed. The GP associated 'virtue' with words like 'morality,' 'character,' and 'Buddha,' while ESs linked it to terms such as 'good life,' 'ethics,' and 'character,' reflecting a stronger influence of Western virtue ethics. Third, both groups exhibited a limited understanding of Confucian virtues. Fourth, concerning perceived importance, the GP emphasized passive, emotional virtues such as 'gratitude,' which also has strong Buddhist connotations, while ESs favored active, intellectual virtues like 'prudence,' reflecting a Western philosophical influence. This contrast appeared consistently across categories of virtues. Specifically, the GP showed a stronger preference for virtues with passive, emotional, and Buddhist connotations, such as 'non-impoliteness', 'compassion', 'gratitude' and 'politeness', while ESs favored virtues with active, intellectual and Western connotations such as 'studying', 'independence', 'autonomy', 'freedom and responsibility', and 'fairness, equity, social justice'. Finally, 'not applicable' was frequently selected, particularly among ESs in categories related to Western epistemic virtues, suggesting uncertainty or disagreement about the most important virtues in this domain.

The findings reveal a significant gap in the understanding of 'virtue' between the general public and educational specialists in Japan. This gap stems from differing levels of familiarity with the term and differing associations with the concept. While both groups largely hold positive impressions, their underlying reasons and the virtues they deem important diverge significantly. This divergence is influenced by both the historical reception of virtue in Japan (Buddhist and Confucian influences alongside the more recent introduction of Western virtue ethics) and the participants' educational backgrounds. The study highlights the potential pitfalls of neglecting this gap, particularly in the development of educational curricula and policies. Educational specialists should be mindful of the public's understanding to avoid creating potentially flawed or ineffective educational systems.

This study provides the first empirical investigation into the disparity in understanding virtue between the general public and educational specialists in Japan. It reveals a significant gap rooted in differing levels of familiarity and varying interpretations of the concept, particularly concerning the emphasis on active versus passive virtues and Western versus Eastern influences. Further research should explore the factors behind these differences, include schoolteachers in the survey, and investigate similar gaps in other societies with complex historical and cultural influences on the understanding of virtue.

This exploratory study has limitations. Further research is needed to fully understand the factors driving the observed differences in understanding between the GP and ESs. Also, the study excluded schoolteachers from the main sample, warranting future investigation of their perspectives on the notion of virtue. Lastly, while focusing on Japan's unique interplay of Western and Eastern virtue traditions, future research could explore similar contrasts in other societies.