Teaching skills in physical education teacher training: theoretical and factor models

The study addresses how to validly assess teaching competences within initial teacher training for Physical Education (ITTPE) in the context of European reforms (EHEA) and competence-based education (Tuning Project, ANECA). It responds to debates on aligning teacher education with societal needs while ensuring critical, inclusive, and ethical competence development. The research aims to evaluate the internal structure and psychometric properties of a tool measuring transversal skills in PE teacher training and to test whether this structure aligns with theoretical models (instrumental, interpersonal/personal, systemic) widely cited in the literature. The authors articulate three research questions: RQ1—What is the instrument’s internal structure? RQ2—Does this structure fit theoretical models proposed in the literature? RQ3—Does the test show convergent and discriminant validity?

The paper reviews competence frameworks guiding European higher education (Tuning Project; ANECA), distinguishing generic (instrumental, interpersonal, systemic) and specific competences and emphasizing their integration for teacher professionalization. It summarizes shifts in PE teacher training from traditional to constructivist and social-critical paradigms and highlights the importance of cognitive, technological, linguistic, personal, interpersonal, and systemic competences for inclusive and effective teaching. Prior instruments and validations related to PE teacher competences are discussed (e.g., ETCS, self-perception scales, university teaching competence questionnaires), noting gaps in validated measures for transversal competences within PE teacher higher education. Recent works identify multiple competence dimensions (creative/autonomous, interpersonal/intrapersonal, reflection, critical thinking, communication, metacognitive, specific), but empirical confirmation of overarching theoretical models (Tuning, ANECA) for transversal skills remains limited, motivating the present validation.

Design: Psychometric evaluation with exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the transversal skills block of the Questionnaire of Perception of Teaching Skills in Physical Education. Participants: N=1104 Spanish undergraduates from 20 university centres (59.78% male, 40.22% female). 751 (68%) were fourth-year primary education teacher students with Special Mention in Physical Education (SMPE); 353 (32%) were fourth-year students in a Degree in Physical Activity and Sports Sciences (DPASC). Non-probabilistic sampling via the Spanish National Network of Formative Assessment in Higher Education. Ethical approval obtained; informed consent collected; anonymity ensured. Instrument: Questionnaire of Perception of Teaching Skills in Physical Education (Palacios-Picos et al., 2019). This study analyses the second block (transversal skills). Initial 24 items were reviewed by eight expert judges (≥15 years ITTPE experience); items were grouped/removed/modified to 21 items across three subscales: (1) Personal and Interpersonal Skills (9 items; e.g., analysis/synthesis, organisation/planning, teamwork, interpersonal relations, critical thinking, ethical commitment, autonomous learning, adaptability, creativity); (2) Teaching-Learning Process Management and Planning (7 items; e.g., organising learning settings, managing learning progress, attention to diversity, involving students/families, understanding institutional organisation); (3) Instrumental Skills (5 items; e.g., foreign language, computer knowledge, ICT use, institutional management participation, addressing professional/ethical dilemmas). Responses on 0–4 Likert scale. Procedure and Data Analysis: The sample was randomly split into two subsamples (n=552 each). Stage 1: Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on polychoric correlations; suitability verified via KMO=0.94 and Bartlett’s test χ²(276)=1296.07, p<0.001. Optimised parallel analysis (1,000 replications) guided factor retention. Stage 2: Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on the second subsample using diagonally weighted least squares (DWLS) on polychoric correlations (R 3.6.3, lavaan). Three models were tested: single-factor, two correlated factors, and three correlated factors. Reliability assessed via ordinal alpha, McDonald’s omega, composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE), and single-indicator R². Convergent validity evaluated via factor loadings and AVE; discriminant validity via chi-square difference tests constraining factor correlations to 1, correlation confidence intervals not including 1, and HTMT ratios <0.90.

- EFA suggested a three-factor structure explaining 52% of common variance. Factors: F1 Personal and Interpersonal Skills (eigenvalue=8.87; 21% variance), F2 Teaching-Learning Process Management and Planning (eigenvalue=1.37; 18%), F3 Instrumental Skills (eigenvalue=1.03; 13%). - CFA indicated the three correlated factor model fit best: Model 3 χ²(186)=645.59, RMSEA=0.047, CFI=0.983, TLI=0.981, outperforming single- and two-factor models. - Reliability: Overall ordinal alpha α=0.94 and omega ω=0.95 (excellent). Subscales—F1: α=0.89, ω=0.89; F2: α=0.87, ω=0.89; F3: α=0.83, ω=0.84 (good to adequate). Composite reliability: CR1=0.86, CR2=0.85, CR3=0.80 (>0.70). AVE≈0.51–0.52 for all factors (>0.50), supporting convergent validity. - Indicator reliability: High and significant loadings; most standardized loadings >0.50. Example R²: F1 most reliable item 1.35 (Adjusting to new situations; R²=0.55), least 1.30 (Teamwork; R²=0.19). F2 most 2.4 (Involving students; R²=0.53), least 1.23 (Institutional organisation; R²=0.32). F3 most 2.9 (Professional duties/ethics; R²=0.60), least 1.28 (Foreign language; R²=0.30). - Discriminant validity: Constraining factor correlations to 1 significantly worsened fit (e.g., Δχ²(1)=3272.3 for F1–F2; p<0.001). Correlation CIs excluded 1 (F1–F2=0.778 [0.762–0.794]; F1–F3=0.703 [0.687–0.719]; F2–F3=0.835 [0.817–0.853]); HTMT ratios <0.90 (F1–F2=0.771; F1–F3=0.693; F2–F3=0.835). - Overall, the instrument’s three subscales demonstrated strong internal consistency, convergent and discriminant validity, with a best-fitting three-factor correlated structure. High inter-factor correlations suggest a potential higher-order common factor to be explored in future work.

Findings address the research questions by (RQ1) identifying a clear three-factor internal structure capturing personal/interpersonal, teaching-learning process management and planning, and instrumental skills; (RQ2) demonstrating that this structure aligns substantially with prevailing theoretical models (ANECA/Tuning) while indicating nuanced item groupings; and (RQ3) providing robust convergent and discriminant validity evidence alongside strong reliability at the scale and subscale levels. The second factor’s dual orientation—understanding institutional organisation and enacting classroom planning/management—reflects European recommendations for comprehensive teacher preparation inside and beyond the classroom. Instrumental competences, particularly ICT and language proficiency, support diverse professional roles and enhance pedagogy and collaboration. The observed strong correlations among factors suggest integrated competence development in teacher training, where personal/interpersonal and instrumental capacities facilitate the enactment of teaching competences, especially for inclusive, ethical, and collaborative practices. The study underscores a coherent, comprehensive competence training model consistent with national and international guidelines, with implications for curriculum design and assessment in ITTPE.

The study validates the transversal skills block of the Questionnaire of Perception of Teaching Skills in Physical Education, evidencing a reliable and valid three correlated factor structure comprising personal/interpersonal, teaching-learning process management and planning, and instrumental skills. The instrument exhibits excellent overall reliability, satisfactory subscale reliabilities, and strong convergent and discriminant validity, supporting its use in evaluating competence development in PE teacher training and aligning with ANECA/Tuning frameworks. Practically, the results inform curriculum design that integrates affective-social, methodological, and pedagogical competences to foster inclusive, ethical, and collaborative teaching. Future research should examine the potential presence of a higher-order common factor suggested by strong inter-factor correlations, further refine item structure, and extend validation to broader contexts.

The study could not deepen the analysis of a potential strong common (higher-order) factor underlying the three subscales, despite high inter-factor correlations and indications from parallel analysis. Further work is needed to test this possibility. Additionally, psychometric results pertain to Spanish undergraduate samples and to the transversal skills block of the instrument.