The knowledge society demands highly qualified teachers across all educational levels. The Sorbonne Declaration (1998) and subsequent developments in higher education emphasize a skills-based approach to teacher training. This necessitates a closer link between universities and society, particularly within the framework of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA). However, concerns exist regarding the potential alignment of teacher training institutions with neoliberal political interests, leading to professional profiles shaped by financial demands rather than societal needs. Critics argue that both teacher training institutions and schools have adapted to the requirements of neoliberal society. Echeverría (2002) proposes a three-level professionalization model: developing teaching tasks, acquiring personal skills, and integrating them contextually. This requires strategically combining personal and professional skills. A critical perspective emphasizes the link between teacher skill development and social transformation, advocating for the training of teachers committed to citizen development. This requires professionals capable of addressing teaching-learning processes and resolving issues creatively and ethically. Hence, training must seamlessly address both personal and professional capacities in new teachers. Mastering teaching development skills and interpersonal skills to engage students are crucial, along with supporting students with specific learning needs through inclusive, interactive, and collaborative pedagogical methods. Two types of skills are considered crucial for training new teachers: generic and specific skills, requiring disciplinary and transdisciplinary collaboration to overcome the traditional fragmentation of knowledge in teacher education programs. The Tuning Educational Structures in Europe project and Spain's National Agency for Quality Assessment (ANECA) provide frameworks for organizing these skills. In Initial Teacher Training in Physical Education (ITTPE), teaching skills are categorized into instrumental (cognitive), interpersonal (affective-social), and systemic (integrative) levels. The development of instrumental skills in ITTPE involves communicative, technological, and cognitive abilities. Shifts in physical education teaching have moved from positivist traditions to constructivist and social-critical approaches, necessitating cognitive, technological, and linguistic skills. Personal and interpersonal skills encompass affective-social abilities for successful social relationships, requiring consensus, consultation, and problem-solving capabilities. Systemic and integrative skills involve understanding the interrelation of parts within a whole, promoting personal autonomy and problem-solving skills. However, existing research primarily focuses on the presence of competencies in training programs, lacking studies validating tools for measuring skills in higher education. This study aimed to assess the psychometric properties of a measuring tool for teaching skills in physical education teacher training and investigate its fit with the theoretical models suggested by Tuning and ANECA. The research questions explored the instrument's internal structure, its fit to theoretical models, and the construct validity (convergent and discriminant) of the test.

Several studies have examined competences in physical education teacher training, focusing on their presence in training programs. For instance, Baena and Granero (2012), Boned et al. (2004), Díaz del Cueto (2009), Gallardo (2006), Gallego-Ortega and Rodríguez-Fuentes (2018), and Lleixá et al. (2008, 2010) and Romero (2009) conducted research mainly on reviewing their presence in training programs. Other studies, such as the work of Baena et al. (2015), carried out the Spanish validation of the Evaluation of Teaching competences Scale-ETCS scale developed to measure the competences of Secondary Physical Education teachers. Martinez-Minguez (2016) used the "Self-perception Scale of Professional competences" to analyze the influence of a learning project on five teaching competences. In the university context, Salcines-Talledo et al. (2018) developed and validated a self-perception scale of transversal competences, including a specific scale for initial teacher training in Physical Education (FIPEF). Moreno-Murcia et al. (2015) developed a questionnaire to assess university teachers' competences (Teaching Performance Assessment Questionnaire), revealing a three-dimensional factorial structure (planning, development, outcome). Castejón-Oliva et al. (2015) validated a questionnaire assessing student perceptions of participatory methodology and formative assessment. Aparicio and Fraile (2015) analyzed the development of interpersonal competences using a corporal expression program. Palacios-Picos et al. (2019) highlighted that not all generic and specific skills are equally present or valued in curricula or assessment systems. Hortigüela-Alcalá et al. (2018) identified five dimensions of competences. Meier (2020) and Moreno-Murcia et al. (2015) emphasized the development of capacities for planning, implementing, and assessing teaching. Despite these theoretical models, no studies validated tools for measuring these skills in higher education. The lack of empirical verification of the polysemous concept of skill and models from the Tuning Project or ANECA motivated this study.

This quantitative study involved 1104 undergraduate students (59.78% male, 40.22% female) from 20 Spanish universities. Participants were selected through a non-probabilistic sample from universities in the Spanish National Network of Formative Assessment in Higher Education. Data were collected using the Questionnaire of Perception of Teaching Skills in Physical Education (Palacios-Picos et al., 2019). This questionnaire comprises two blocks: one with four subscales on teaching skills (previously analyzed) and another with three subscales on transversal skills (analyzed in this study). The initial 24 items in the second block (transversal skills) were refined by eight expert judges to 21 items. These items assess students' perceptions of the help received in developing transversal skills. The three subscales assessed are personal and interpersonal skills (nine items), teaching-learning process management skills (seven items), and instrumental skills (five items). Participants used a five-point Likert scale (0-4) to indicate their level of agreement with each statement. Data analysis proceeded in two stages. Stage 1 used exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on a random subsample of 552 participants, using polychoric correlations. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett's test of sphericity assessed data suitability (KMO = 0.94; Bartlett's test, χ²(276) = 1296.07, p < 0.001). Optimized parallel analysis determined the optimal number of factors. Stage 2 employed confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on the remaining subsample (552 participants), comparing one-, two-, and three-factor models using diagonally weighted least squares with polychoric correlations. R 3.6.3 software and the Lavaan package were used. Reliability (internal consistency, individual indicator reliability, construct reliability, measurement error) was assessed for the best-fitting model. Convergent validity was assessed through factorial loadings, and discriminant validity was examined using three approaches: comparing the fit of models with correlations between factors set to 1, confidence interval tests, and HTMT ratio analysis.

The optimized parallel analysis in Stage 1 suggested a three-factor solution explaining 52% of the common variance. The exploratory factor analysis revealed three factors: Factor 1 (Personal and Interpersonal Skills), explaining 21% of the variance, included items related to personal attributes (autonomous learning, critical thinking, ethical commitment, creativity) and interpersonal skills (teamwork, relationships). Factor 2 (Teaching-Learning Process Management and Planning), explaining 18% of the variance, grouped items concerning organizing and managing teaching-learning processes, including understanding educational institutions. Factor 3 (Instrumental Skills), explaining 13% of the variance, comprised items related to technological skills (computer knowledge, ICT use), and linguistic skills (foreign language knowledge). Stage 2's confirmatory factor analysis showed that the three-correlated factor model provided the best fit to the data (Table 2). Excellent ordinal alpha reliability (α = 0.94) and McDonald's omega (ω = 0.95) were obtained. Good reliability indexes were found for the three subscales (α₁ = 0.89, ω₁ = 0.89; α₂ = 0.87, ω₂ = 0.89; α₃ = 0.83, ω₃ = 0.84). Composite reliability (CR) was higher than 0.70 for all subscales (CR₁ = 0.86, CR₂ = 0.85, CR₃ = 0.80), and average variance extracted (AVE) exceeded 0.50 for all (AVE₁ = 0.51, AVE₂ = 0.52, AVE₃ = 0.51), indicating sufficient construct reliability. Convergent validity was supported by significant factorial loadings above 0.5 (except one item), with average variance extracted values above 0.5. Discriminant validity was demonstrated through three approaches: (1) constraining correlations between factors to 1 significantly worsened model fit; (2) confidence intervals of correlations between factors did not include 1; and (3) HTMT ratios were below 0.9. (Tables 1, 3, and 4 display detailed results)

The study provides robust evidence for the internal consistency, reliability, and validity of the three-subscale measurement instrument. The three-factor structure aligns with ANECA's categorization of teaching competences. Factor 1 (personal and interpersonal skills) encompasses both personal attributes like critical thinking and ethical commitment and interpersonal skills essential for collaboration. Factor 2 (teaching-learning process management) reflects the dual orientation of facilitating knowledge of the educational context and planning/developing classroom teaching. Factor 3 (instrumental competences) highlights the importance of technological and linguistic skills for diverse professional roles. The interconnections between these three competence orientations support a comprehensive training model aligned with national and international guidelines. The results indicate a training model where three orientations converge to develop teaching competencies, aligned with ANECA guidelines. The connection between personal/interpersonal skills and instrumental skills facilitates the development of teaching competences, essential for promoting inclusive education and fulfilling educational management and leadership roles. Future research could explore the potential for a strong common factor and further investigate the interrelationships between competences for a more integrated approach to teacher training.

This study provides strong psychometric evidence supporting the validity and reliability of a three-factor model for assessing teaching skills in physical education teacher training. The identified factors – personal/interpersonal, teaching-learning process management, and instrumental skills – align well with existing theoretical frameworks. The findings highlight the importance of a holistic approach to teacher training, integrating personal, pedagogical, and instrumental skills. Further research could explore the potential for a stronger common factor underlying these skills and the impact of these skills on actual teaching performance.

The study used a non-probabilistic sample from a specific network of universities in Spain. This limits the generalizability of the findings to other contexts or populations. Future research could replicate the study with larger and more diverse samples to enhance generalizability. The study relied on self-reported perceptions of teaching skills, which may be subject to bias. Future studies could incorporate observational measures of teaching performance to enhance the validation of the instrument.