Satisfaction as a key antecedent for word of mouth and an essential mediator for service quality and brand trust in international education

Private international schools operate in increasingly competitive markets where retention and new student recruitment are heavily influenced by parents’ experiences. Word of mouth (WOM) from satisfied parents is a key driver of referrals, especially among relocating families who rely on trusted social networks. This study focuses on Generation X parents (born 1965–1980) at The International School of Macao (TIS), Macau SAR, China, an independent school that grew from 58 students (2002) to 1458 (2021). Research question: What impact do parental satisfaction, service quality, and brand trust have on the likelihood of Generation X parents to engage in word of mouth at TIS? Objectives: (1) assess the effects of service quality and brand trust on parent WOM; (2) examine parent satisfaction’s direct effect on WOM; and (3) test whether satisfaction mediates the effects of service quality and brand trust on WOM. The study addresses a gap by empirically testing these relationships in a K–12 international context.

Satisfaction: Grounded in expectancy-disconfirmation theory, satisfaction reflects the evaluation of perceived versus expected performance and is often treated as an affective attitude in services. Prior work links branding (brand image, trust) and service quality to satisfaction. Although satisfaction is commonly tied to loyalty outcomes, findings are mixed regarding its sufficiency for WOM. Relationship between satisfaction and WOM: Prior studies generally show satisfied customers are more likely to recommend, motivating the hypothesis that satisfaction positively affects parents’ WOM. Service quality: Typically measured using SERVQUAL (tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy). While widely used in higher education, K–12 contexts require adapting items since parents, not students, evaluate service experiences; items must be contextualized to the parent-as-consumer perspective. Hypotheses propose service quality directly affects WOM and positively affects satisfaction. Brand trust: Defined as the willingness to rely on a brand’s ability to perform its function. Trust is central to relationships, influences loyalty and WOM, and can enhance satisfaction via emotional connection. Hypotheses propose brand trust directly affects WOM and positively affects satisfaction. WOM and social influence: WOM influences expectations and purchase decisions; its impact depends on the strength of ties between giver and receiver. In schooling, WOM from trusted network members is especially consequential for school choice. Satisfaction as mediator: Prior research shows both partial and, in some cases, full mediation by satisfaction in relationships among perceived quality, brand trust, loyalty, and WOM. The present study tests whether satisfaction partially or fully mediates the effects of service quality and brand trust on WOM. Hypotheses: H1 SQ→WOM (+); H2 SAT→WOM (+); H3 BT→WOM (+); H4 SQ→SAT (+); H5 BT→SAT (+); H6 SAT mediates SQ→WOM; H7 SAT mediates BT→WOM.

Design: Quantitative, cross-sectional survey of Generation X parents at The International School of Macao (TIS). Instrument: 32 items adapted from prior scales and contextualized to K–12 international education via an Item Objective Congruence (IOC) process with three education experts (items retained at IOC > 0.6; nonconforming items revised and re-evaluated). Constructs and sources: Brand Trust (4 items; Jain et al., 2018), WOM (3 items; Ahmadi, 2019), Satisfaction (4 items; Cham et al., 2016), Service Quality (initially 27 items adapted from Lam, 1997; Cham et al., 2016; 23 adapted + 4 added post-IOC). All items used a 5-point Likert scale. Pilot: N=36 usable responses (of 99 invited, 33 acceptable responses used for reliability). Cronbach’s alpha: Brand Trust 0.800; Service Quality 0.956; Satisfaction 0.952; WOM 0.919. Sampling and data collection: Judgment sampling (email to all currently enrolled parents) with snowball follow-up; teacher-facilitated reminders. Survey bilingual (English/Chinese); Chinese translation by school communications staff, reviewed by Mandarin department head. Inclusion targeted Generation X parents (born 1965–1980). Valid responses: N=458. Sample demographics: 59.4% female (n=272), 40.0% male (n=183), 0.7% not stated (n=3). Marital status: 90.8% married/with partner (n=416). Monthly income varied; 24.6% preferred not to state. Analysis: Conducted in AMOS. Measurement model evaluated via CFA for convergent and discriminant validity. To achieve fit, service quality observed variables reduced from 27 to 18; overall SQ construct retained (Cronbach’s alpha for retained items 0.958). Convergent validity met: standardized loadings ≥ 0.60, AVE ≥ 0.50, CR ≥ 0.70, alphas ≥ 0.70. Discriminant validity via HTMT with all ratios < 0.90. Model fit indices acceptable: CMIN/DF=2.729; GFI=0.870; AGFI=0.844; NFI=0.927; CFI=0.952; TLI=0.946; RMSEA=0.059. Structural model: SEM tested direct and indirect effects. Bootstrapped (bias-corrected, 95% CI) indirect effects assessed. Paths estimated: SQ→SAT, BT→SAT, SQ→WOM, BT→WOM, SAT→WOM; mediation via SAT for SQ→WOM and BT→WOM.

- Measurement validity: Convergent and discriminant validity achieved. Example metrics (Table 3): Brand Trust CR=0.868, AVE=0.623, alpha=0.853; Service Quality CR=0.958, AVE=0.563, alpha=0.958; Satisfaction CR=0.952, AVE=0.832, alpha=0.924; WOM CR=0.925, AVE=0.804, alpha=0.881. HTMT ratios all <0.90. - Model fit: CMIN/DF=2.729; GFI=0.870; AGFI=0.844; NFI=0.927; CFI=0.952; TLI=0.946; RMSEA=0.059. - Structural paths (Table 8): • H1 SQ→WOM: Rejected; direct effect=0.037, p=0.642 (ns). • H2 SAT→WOM: Supported; direct effect=0.767, p<0.001. • H3 BT→WOM: Rejected; direct effect=0.091, p=0.295 (ns). • H4 SQ→SAT: Supported; direct effect=0.428, p<0.001. • H5 BT→SAT: Supported; direct effect=0.446, p<0.001. • H6 SQ→SAT→WOM: Supported; indirect effect=0.328, p<0.001; full mediation (no significant direct effect). • H7 BT→SAT→WOM: Supported; indirect effect=0.342, p<0.001; full mediation (no significant direct effect). - Total effects on WOM (combining direct + indirect): Brand Trust→WOM total=0.433; Service Quality→WOM total=0.365; Satisfaction→WOM=0.767. - Explained variance: R²(SAT)≈0.724; R²(WOM)=0.767. - Summary: Parent satisfaction exerts the strongest direct influence on WOM and fully mediates the effects of service quality and brand trust on WOM in this K–12 international school context.

The findings directly address the research question by showing that while service quality and brand trust are important, their influence on parent recommendations operates through satisfaction. Satisfaction is the essential antecedent for WOM: without satisfied parents, improvements in service processes or brand-level trust do not translate into recommendations. Service quality significantly increases satisfaction, indicating that parents’ day-to-day interactions with the school (administration, communications, services like transport and lunches) shape their overall evaluation. Brand trust also significantly increases satisfaction and, notably, with a slightly stronger effect than service quality, emphasizing the role of confidence in the institution’s ability to keep children safe and deliver on its promises. However, neither service quality nor brand trust alone suffices to spur WOM absent satisfaction. This clarifies why some schools may not see increased referrals despite operational improvements or branding efforts: unless those efforts elevate overall satisfaction, WOM will not rise. The study extends prior higher-education findings to K–12 international schooling, demonstrating full rather than partial mediation by satisfaction and highlighting the centrality of sustained, relationship-based experiences for parent advocacy.

This study is the first empirical examination in K–12 international education of how service quality, satisfaction, and brand trust affect parent word of mouth and of the mediating role of satisfaction. Using a contextually adapted and validated measurement instrument and SEM with data from 458 Generation X parents at TIS, the study shows that satisfaction has the strongest direct effect on WOM (0.767), while the direct effects of brand trust and service quality on WOM are not significant. Satisfaction fully mediates the effects of brand trust (total effect=0.433) and service quality (total effect=0.365) on WOM. Practically, school leaders should prioritize strategies that raise parent satisfaction—by improving service quality processes and building brand trust—because satisfaction is the necessary conduit through which these antecedents generate referrals and recommendations. The work contributes a validated instrument for K–12 international settings and advances theory by evidencing full mediation by satisfaction in this context.

- External validity: Single-site study (one international school in Macau SAR) and one cohort (Generation X parents) limit generalizability. - Measurement generalization: The adapted scales, though validated here, require further reliability and validity testing across additional K–12 international schools and diverse cultural contexts. - Construct delineation: Potential ambiguity between brand trust and relational/professional trust in schooling suggests the need to refine and differentiate trust dimensions in future research. - Scope of antecedents: Other potential drivers of satisfaction and WOM were not modeled; future work should identify and test additional antecedents. - Comparative models: Further research should compare education-specific service quality dimensions with other industries to refine an education-specific service quality model and further validate the instrument.