Raising religious inherency: the role of interreligious competence in achieving religious education equality in multireligious public schools in Indonesia

The study investigates challenges in delivering religious education for all religions (REFAL) within Indonesia’s multireligious public schools. Indonesia’s context is unique: it is neither a secular nor a religious state, yet RE is compulsory in public and private schools and must be taught by a teacher of the same religion as the student (Act No. 20/2003). The research focuses on how equality in RE is implemented across diverse settings and how tolerance, as a facet of interreligious competence, operates within these schools to foster religious inherency. Three research questions guide the study: (1) In multireligious public schools, is RE provided to all multireligious students? (2) Considering delivery strategies: a) Do rural, multireligious areas like Bangka Island meet requirements for equal RE delivery? b) Can a highly diverse area like Yogyakarta serve as a model for less diverse areas? (3) What is the connection between interreligious competence, tolerance, and RE equality in fostering religious inherency? The study posits that context-sensitive policy implementation and school practices can promote tolerance and coexistence, shaping students’ character and national identity while maintaining peace in a multireligious society.

Religious education equality: Human rights are inherent, universal, equal, and feasible; education should support tolerance and pluralism (Kamruzzaman and Das, 2016; Bader and Maussen, 2012; Rougier and Honohan, 2015). Countries approach RE differently: Australia emphasizes Christian mono-religious education and religious literacy; Canada’s Québec implemented the mandatory ERC program to reflect multireligious and multicultural realities; sub-Saharan contexts (Malawi, Ghana) shifted from Christian to multifaith education but face issues of teacher knowledge, pedagogy, training, and specialist availability (Matemba, 2009, 2011; Matemba and Addai-Mununkum, 2019). Prior Indonesian studies at senior/vocational high school levels and in capital cities reported generally positive RE service indices and availability (Hayadin, 2017, 2018). Gaps include a focus on higher secondary levels and urban settings, leaving primary/lower secondary and rural contexts underexplored. Interreligious competence and religious inherency: Multireligious societies can experience inequality, prejudice, and discrimination; interreligious communication fosters awareness and acceptance (Lindsay, 2020). A developmental model of interreligious competence includes stages from denial to integration, with adaptation, acceptance, and integration relevant here (Morgan and Sandage, 2016). Tolerance functions within social systems to maintain order (Dijker and Koomen, 2015) and can reduce conflict when paired with inclusive RE (Evans, 2008; Darmody and Smyth, 2017). Religious inherency is conceptualized as an individual’s strong connection to religion arising from lived continuity, habits, and values (Steffen, 2010, 2011; Ramcharan, 2008), distinct from mere identity. The paper proposes that interreligious competence in school settings can nurture religious inherency while sustaining peaceful coexistence.

Design: Case study of RE delivery in multireligious public schools under the Ministry of Education and Culture (MOEC). The focus is on how RE is provided to students of different religions within non-religious public schools. Sampling and sites: Purposeful random sampling of elementary and junior high schools in two contrasting areas selected via a top-down approach: (1) Yogyakarta Province (Sleman Regency) as the most diverse area; (2) Bangka Island (Central Bangka Regency) as a less diverse, rural/remote context. Twelve schools were included (six per area), all with multireligious student populations located in multiethnic villages. Participants and data collection: 38 participants: 10 principals, 1 vice-principal, 11 religious subject teachers, 1 classroom teacher, and 15 students. Methods included semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), and classroom/school observations to capture policy implementation, delivery strategies, teacher availability, and student interactions. Data analysis: Interview transcripts (translated by the author) were thematically coded into RE delivery strategy, RE teacher distribution, and RE teacher availability to address RQs 1 and 2; observations and FGDs examined interreligious interactions and tolerance for RQ 3. Contextual background: Indonesia mandates RE as a compulsory subject at primary and secondary levels; content and hours are set nationally (4 hours/week elementary; 3 hours/week junior/senior high). RE must be taught by a teacher of the same religion (Act No. 20/2003; Government Regulation No. 55/2007; MORA Policy No. 16/2010). The dual governance involves MOEC (general schools) and MORA (religious schools). Samples’ demographics: Yogyakarta schools (n=2,071 students): Muslim 94.10%, Catholic 3.81%, Christian 1.93%, Hindu 0.14%. Bangka schools (n=1,855 students): Muslim 93.74%, Buddhism 2.10%, Confucianism 1.83%, Catholic 1.40%, Christian 0.91%.

• Provision of RE by student’s own religion varies by context: Yogyakarta (urban/diverse) generally delivered RE for all represented religions in the sampled public schools, aligning with prior positive findings at higher levels. In Bangka (rural/remote), most non-Muslim students attended an integrated Islamic RE class with Muslim peers rather than receiving RE specific to their religion.
• Main barriers to RE equality identified in Bangka:
  1. Minimum number of students per religion and per grade, reducing obligation to provide a teacher for small minorities.
  2. Lack of human resources/qualified teachers for minority religions, particularly outside urban centers; past community-provided teachers ceased after ~2010.
  3. Limited school budgets to hire non-civil servant religious teachers; concerns about paying below regional minimum salary and teaching quality.
  4. Area conditions (rural/remote distance from urban centers) hindered teacher deployment and sustainability of community-based arrangements.
• Despite inequality in formal provision, school communities often used ad hoc solutions (e.g., allowing minority students to study independently, go to libraries, or obtain exam materials via religious leaders), though these were unsustainable and insufficient for equality.
• Tolerance and interreligious competence: Both Muslim majorities and non-Muslim minorities tended to accept and respect the unequal conditions to maintain a peaceful, conducive school environment. Non-Muslim students did not report pressure to convert and viewed participation/attendance in Islamic classes as not undermining their own beliefs.
• Quantitative/contextual data points: • 12 public schools sampled; 38 participants interviewed. • Yogyakarta student composition (n=2,071): 94.10% Muslim; 3.81% Catholic; 1.93% Christian; 0.14% Hindu. • Bangka student composition (n=1,855): 93.74% Muslim; 2.10% Buddhism; 1.83% Confucianism; 1.40% Catholic; 0.91% Christian. • Non-Muslim formal RE more available in urban areas; rural/remote schools largely used Islamic-integrated classes.
• Contrast with prior studies: Earlier surveys of senior/vocational high schools in provincial capitals reported high RE service indices; this study at primary/lower secondary levels and in rural contexts reveals significant gaps for minorities.

The findings directly address the research questions. (1) RE is not universally provided according to each student’s religion in multireligious public schools: urban Yogyakarta generally met REFAL expectations, while rural Bangka did not, with minorities often placed in Islamic-integrated classes. (2) Delivery strategies differ by context: Yogyakarta’s relative success does not straightforwardly transfer to Bangka due to different constraints (small minority enrollments, teacher scarcity, budget limits, remoteness). Thus, Yogyakarta cannot serve as a simple model for less diverse, rural areas without addressing these structural barriers. (3) Interreligious competence and tolerance emerge as social mechanisms that help maintain peace amidst inequality. Acceptance and respectful coexistence—especially by minorities with less power—reflect adaptation and acceptance stages of interreligious competence, supporting a peaceful learning environment. However, this tolerance is shaped by structural conditions (e.g., lack of alternatives) rather than full equity. The study suggests that such interreligious interactions can cultivate religious inherency—students’ deeper attachment to their own faith—by normalizing multireligious presence and practices, even when formal equality is not fully realized. Policy significance lies in the need for decentralized, context-specific solutions (e.g., mobile or shared teachers, budget support, community-school partnerships) to close RE gaps while sustaining interreligious competence and social harmony.

The study shows that achieving equality in religious education depends heavily on local conditions. While national policy guarantees RE according to each student’s religion, rural/remote schools in Bangka face four key barriers—small minority numbers, lack of qualified teachers, limited budgets, and area constraints—leading to Islamic-integrated classes for non-Muslim students. Urban Yogyakarta schools generally provided RE for all represented religions. Interreligious competence—expressed through acceptance and mutual respect—helped maintain peaceful coexistence and a conducive learning environment, contributing to religious inherency among students. The paper offers a contextual framework for understanding RE delivery across urban and rural settings and underscores the need for locally tailored interventions to advance REFAL. Future directions: Strengthen collaboration with local governments and religious communities to ensure sustainable provision of minority religion teachers, explore shared or itinerant teacher models, and extend research to community factors and additional regions to build a comprehensive model for equitable RE delivery.

• Limited access to local government policy and implementation details constrained analysis of how national policy is interpreted and operationalized locally.
• School-centric focus with limited data on community-based RE provision and its sustainability; findings are derived primarily from school members’ interviews, sharing, and dialogue.
• Study scope restricted to primary and lower secondary levels and two regions; generalizability to other contexts may be limited.
• The concept of religious inherency would benefit from broader community-level investigation to fully capture social dynamics beyond schools.