Higher education institutions increasingly prioritize student satisfaction, recognizing it as a crucial measure of service quality and a key factor in attracting students. The COVID-19 pandemic forced a rapid transition to online learning, disrupting traditional teaching methods and highlighting the need to assess and improve the quality of online education. While numerous studies have examined technological and institutional aspects impacting online student satisfaction, there is limited research on the influence of human factors—instructor quality and students' psychological states—particularly during the pandemic. This study aims to investigate the interplay between instructor quality, students' fear of COVID-19, their anxiety levels, their satisfaction with online classes, and their academic performance during the pandemic.

Existing research emphasizes the significance of student satisfaction in higher education, particularly in online contexts. Instructor quality, including effective communication, technological proficiency, and timely feedback, is consistently linked to positive student experiences. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated pre-existing mental health challenges among students, leading to increased anxiety and depression. Studies have shown a correlation between mental well-being and academic performance, but the specific influence of pandemic-related fears and anxieties on student success in online learning remains under-researched. This study builds upon previous research by examining the combined effects of instructor quality and student psychological factors on satisfaction and academic effort.

This cross-sectional descriptive study, conducted in 2022, surveyed 359 students from two Croatian universities (one public, one private) offering programs in popular fields of study. Data were collected via an online questionnaire, including validated scales to measure instructor quality, anxiety (Spielberg Trait and State Anxiety Scale), student satisfaction (adapted from Bangert, 2004; Gopal et al., 2021; Wilson et al., 1997), and fear of COVID-19 (Ahorsu et al., 2022; Bitan et al., 2020; Zolotov et al., 2022), and academic effort (adapted from Tolken, 2011). After rigorous data screening and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with Promax rotation, followed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), several items were removed to enhance scale validity. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to test the hypothesized relationships. The final model incorporated five latent variables: Instructor Quality, Emotional Fear Reactions to COVID-19, Anxiety, Student Satisfaction, and Academic Effort.

SEM analysis revealed significant positive relationships between instructor quality and student satisfaction (β = 0.695, p < 0.001), supporting hypothesis H1. Student satisfaction significantly and positively predicted academic effort (β = 0.373, p < 0.001), supporting H2. Emotional fear reactions to COVID-19 positively predicted anxiety (β = 0.368, p < 0.001), supporting H4. However, anxiety did not significantly predict academic effort (β = -0.045, p = 0.454), contradicting H5, nor did it significantly affect student satisfaction (β = -0.060, p = 0.176), contradicting H7. Importantly, student satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between instructor quality and academic effort (β = 0.369, p < 0.001), supporting H3; the direct effect of instructor quality on academic effort was non-significant when mediating effects were accounted for. The hypothesized indirect effect of COVID-19 fear on academic effort via anxiety was not significant (β = -0.017, p > 0.05), failing to support H6.

The findings strongly support the importance of instructor quality in fostering student satisfaction and academic effort in online learning environments, even during a pandemic. The full mediation effect of satisfaction highlights the critical role of the learning experience in motivating students. The unexpected lack of a significant effect of COVID-19 fear and anxiety on academic outcomes may be due to several factors, including the timing of the study (as students may have adapted to the pandemic context), the relatively lower levels of fear reported amongst university students compared to the general population, or the possibility that anxiety, in some cases, might even positively influence student motivation. These results contrast some previous research, prompting the need for further investigation to clarify the complex interplay between these factors.

This study underscores the critical role of instructor quality in enhancing student satisfaction and academic effort in online learning, particularly demonstrated through the full mediation effect of satisfaction. While the anticipated effects of COVID-19 fear and anxiety were not observed, the findings provide valuable insights into the dynamics of online learning and highlight the need for ongoing monitoring of student well-being and adaptation to changing learning conditions. Future research should explore longitudinal relationships, investigate other factors influencing this complex interaction, and examine these factors across different cultures and student populations.

The cross-sectional design limits causal inference. The study's scope is limited to Croatian university students, potentially affecting generalizability. Further sociodemographic factors potentially influencing student responses were not investigated. Future research could address these limitations through longitudinal studies, broader sampling, and inclusion of additional variables.