Online class-related boredom and perceived academic achievement among college students: the roles of gender and school motivation

The study addresses how online class-related boredom influences perceived academic achievement among college students and examines the roles of school motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) and gender. Grounded in the control-value theory of achievement emotions and self-determination theory, it posits that boredom—a deactivating negative academic emotion common in online learning—reduces cognitive resources and motivation, thereby impairing achievement. The research aims to test: (H1) a negative association between online class-related boredom and academic achievement; (H2) negative associations between boredom and both intrinsic and extrinsic school motivation; and (H3) a moderating role of gender in the mediating effect of school motivation between boredom and achievement. The work responds to limited prior empirical evidence and the growing importance of online learning environments.

The paper reviews boredom as a multifaceted achievement emotion with affective, cognitive, physiological, expressive, and motivational components, arising when tasks lack value or appropriate challenge (Pekrun’s control-value theory). Academic achievement encompasses both quantifiable performance and general skills (e.g., communication, problem-solving). Prior evidence shows boredom correlates negatively with achievement, and meta-analytic work confirms a significant negative relationship. From SDT, motivation is delineated as intrinsic versus extrinsic (with subtypes) and amotivation; school motivation encompasses mastery and extrinsic factors (McInerney’s model). Theoretical models suggest deactivating negative emotions like boredom undermine both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, leading to poor engagement and simplistic strategies. Empirical findings on gender differences in boredom are mixed, but gender differences in achievement and online learning behaviors are documented, suggesting potential gender-specific pathways. The study formulates three hypotheses: H1 negative link between online class-related boredom and achievement; H2 boredom negatively correlates with intrinsic and extrinsic school motivation; H3 gender moderates the mediating effect of school motivation between boredom and achievement.

Design: Cross-sectional quantitative study modeling online class-related boredom as the independent variable, academic achievement as the dependent variable, school motivation (intrinsic, extrinsic) as mediators, and gender as a moderator. PROCESS macro (Hayes) used Model 4 for mediation and Model 7 for moderated mediation. Participants and procedure: N = 1294 undergraduates from diverse Chinese universities (Northeastern University, Northeast Petroleum University, Gannan Normal University, Dalian Medical University, Dongbei University of Finance and Economics, Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences, Liaoning Normal University). Gender: 368 male, 926 female. Disciplines: 658 humanities/social sciences; 636 engineering/medicine. Year: 394 first-year, 445 sophomores, 354 juniors, 101 seniors. Academic rank segments: top 20% (177), 21–40% (325), 41–60% (500), 61–80% (214), bottom 20% (78). Ethics approval obtained; informed consent secured. Surveys administered online; responses on 5-point Likert scales. Measures: - Online class-related boredom: Adapted AEQ class-related boredom scale (11 items) contextualized for online classes; translation–back translation. Reliability: Cronbach’s α = 0.95 (prior α = 0.93). CFA fit: χ²/df = 4.537, RMSEA = 0.052, NFI = 0.989, CFI = 0.991. - School motivation: Adapted items from the Inventory of School Motivation (23 items). Intrinsic school motivation captured by task and effort; extrinsic motivation by praise and token. Translation–back translation. Reliability (current): task α = 0.92, effort α = 0.93, praise α = 0.87, token α = 0.83. CFA fit: χ²/df = 7.178, RMSEA = 0.069, NFI = 0.997, CFI = 0.998. - Academic achievement: Perceived general skills and quantifiable performance (7 items; e.g., problem-solving, analytical ability, teamwork, written communication, self-management) on 1–5 scale. Reliability α = 0.97. CFA fit: χ²/df = 3.567, RMSEA = 0.045, NFI = 0.998, CFI = 0.998. Data analysis: Normality checked via Q–Q plots. Correlations computed. PROCESS Model 4 tested mediation (bootstrapping, 5000 samples, 95% CIs) controlling for gender, grade, major. PROCESS Model 7 tested moderated mediation with gender as moderator (bootstrapping, 5000 samples, 95% CIs). Interaction plots examined at ±1 SD of boredom.

Descriptives and correlations: Online class-related boredom (OCB) negatively correlated with academic achievement (AA): r = -0.289, p < 0.01. Intrinsic school motivation (ISM) positively correlated with AA: r = 0.758, p < 0.01. Extrinsic school motivation (ESM) positively correlated with AA: r = 0.613, p < 0.01. OCB correlated negatively with ISM: r = -0.290, p < 0.01; OCB–ESM correlation was near zero: r = -0.005 (ns). Mediation tests (controlling gender, grade, major): OCB → AA: β = -0.275, p < 0.001; R² = 0.092, ΔR² = 0.081, F(1,1289) = 114.28, p < 0.001 (supports H1). OCB → ISM: β = -0.247, p < 0.001; R² = 0.087, ΔR² = 0.080, F(1,1289) = 112.27, p < 0.001. OCB → ESM: β = -0.007, p > 0.05 (no significant direct association; partial support for H2). ISM → AA: β = 0.835, p < 0.001; R² = 0.578, ΔR² = 0.567, F(1,1289) = 1731.04, p < 0.001. ESM → AA: β = 0.741, p < 0.001; R² = 0.388, ΔR² = 0.376, F(1,1289) = 791.92, p < 0.001. Full mediation model: Overall R² = 0.596, F(6,1287) = 316.06, p < 0.001. Indirect effect via ISM: -0.162 (Boot SE = 0.027, 95% CI [-0.214, -0.002]) significant. Indirect effect via ESM: -0.001 (Boot SE = 0.008, 95% CI [-0.018, 0.014]) not significant. Total indirect effect: -0.163 (Boot SE = 0.033, 95% CI [-0.229, -0.101]). Total effect: β = -0.275; direct effect: β = -0.112 (both p < 0.001). Moderated mediation (gender as moderator; controlling grade, major): Overall R² = 0.593, F(5,1288) = 375.95, p < 0.001. - ISM path: Gender × OCB → ISM: β = -0.287, p < 0.001; model R² = 0.111, F(5,1288) = 32.17, p < 0.001. Conditional indirect effects via ISM: females = -0.225 (Boot SE = 0.030, 95% CI [-0.286, -0.168]) significant; males = -0.037 (Boot SE = 0.051, 95% CI [-0.142, 0.057]) not significant. Moderating index for ISM path: -0.189 (Boot SE = 0.059, 95% CI [-0.300, -0.072]). Simple slopes: male B = -0.056, t = -1.419, p > 0.05; female B = -0.344, t = -12.176, p < 0.001. - ESM path: Gender × OCB → ESM: β = -0.274, p < 0.001; model R² = 0.027, F(5,1288) = 7.11, p < 0.001. Conditional indirect effects via ESM: males = 0.037 (Boot SE = 0.017, 95% CI [0.009, 0.072]) positive and significant; females = -0.021 (Boot SE = 0.010, 95% CI [-0.043, -0.003]) negative and significant. Moderating index for ESM path: -0.058 (Boot SE = 0.022, 95% CI [-0.103, -0.020]). Simple slopes: male B = 0.193, t = 4.656, p < 0.001; female B = -0.106, t = -3.603, p < 0.001. Summary: H1 supported; H2 partially supported (negative link with intrinsic but not extrinsic motivation); H3 supported—gender moderates the mediating pathways: boredom reduces intrinsic motivation and achievement more strongly among females, while boredom relates to higher extrinsic motivation among males and lower extrinsic motivation among females, differentially influencing achievement.

Findings corroborate the control-value theory: boredom in online classes undermines perceived control and value, diverting attention and reducing motivation, which in turn depresses academic achievement. The robust negative association between online class-related boredom and achievement aligns with longitudinal and meta-analytic evidence. The partial support for H2 clarifies that intrinsic motivation is especially vulnerable to boredom in online contexts, while extrinsic motivation may be less directly impacted overall but shows gender-contingent patterns. Moderated mediation reveals gender-specific mechanisms: among females, boredom more strongly lowers intrinsic motivation, contributing to lower achievement; among males, boredom is associated with increased extrinsic motivation, whereas for females it is associated with decreased extrinsic motivation, yielding opposite indirect effects. These results emphasize the central role of intrinsic motivation as a pathway linking boredom to achievement and highlight the necessity of gender-responsive strategies in online pedagogy. Implications include designing engaging, autonomy-supportive, and value-enhancing online learning experiences to buffer against boredom and sustain motivation.

The study demonstrates a significant negative association between online class-related boredom and perceived academic achievement in college students. Intrinsic school motivation mediates this relationship, while extrinsic motivation does not show an overall mediating effect; however, gender moderates these pathways. For females, boredom more strongly diminishes intrinsic motivation and indirectly lowers achievement; extrinsic motivation also declines with boredom. For males, boredom relates to higher extrinsic motivation, leading to a positive indirect path via extrinsic motivation. Theoretically, the work extends the control-value theory and self-determination theory to online learning by detailing how boredom and motivation interact with gender to shape outcomes. Practically, it advocates for interactive pedagogies (e.g., real-time polls, group discussions), varied instructional modalities (multimedia, problem-based learning), and structured feedback systems to monitor and address students’ emotional states, with attention to gender-specific needs. Future research should broaden sampling, employ longitudinal or quasi-experimental designs, refine online boredom measures, include standardized achievement metrics, and explicate the mechanisms through which boredom impacts intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Sample coverage was limited to a modest number of Chinese universities and did not fully account for demographic background differences; generalizability may be constrained. The cross-sectional design precludes causal inference; future longitudinal or quasi-experimental work is needed. The boredom measure adapted only a portion of the AEQ for online contexts; a dedicated online boredom scale should be developed. Academic achievement was measured via perceived general skills and self-reports; incorporating standardized test scores is recommended. Mechanisms linking online class-related boredom to reductions in intrinsic and extrinsic motivation remain insufficiently specified and warrant deeper investigation.