Investigating the effect of vocational education and training on rural women's empowerment

The study addresses how vocational education and training (VET) influences rural women’s empowerment—recognized as essential for achieving sustainable development. Globally, rural women constitute a large share of the poor and face limited employment opportunities; in Iran, women’s economic participation is low and rural women play crucial roles in agriculture. Empowerment encompasses economic, social, individual, and psychological dimensions and is linked to enhanced health, nutrition, and development outcomes. New rural development theories emphasize entrepreneurship and capacity building, with education as a key lever. Despite ample acknowledgment of empowerment’s importance, prior research rarely examines the combined effect of all VET components (content, educator, environment, learner) on overall women’s empowerment. This study develops and tests a conceptual model to assess the impact of VET dimensions on rural women’s empowerment in Markazi Province, Iran, providing evidence to inform policy and programming aligned with the 2030 Agenda.

Prior work conceptualizes women’s empowerment across multiple domains—economic, socio-cultural, interpersonal/familial, legal, political, and psychological (Huis et al., 2017; Manuel et al., 2017; Miedema et al., 2018). Studies have identified factors such as individual characteristics (skills, independence, perseverance), family and societal characteristics, and access to resources and decision-making as determinants of empowerment (Sell & Minot, 2018; Akbarpour, 2016; Klasen & Schüler, 2011). Evidence shows that vocational training can enhance women’s confidence, skills, and income generation (Jabbar & Zaza, 2016; Hongxia et al., 2015; Ledman et al., 2018), and educators’ competencies are influential in non-formal VET (Manuel et al., 2017). However, much of the literature focuses on selected facets (e.g., educator proficiency or individual/ environmental dimensions) and does not jointly evaluate all main VET components—content, educator, environment, and learner—on overall empowerment. Table 1 in the article summarizes related studies, highlighting gaps this paper addresses by assessing comprehensive VET components against economic, social, individual, and psychological empowerment outcomes.

Design: Quantitative, non-experimental, applied, survey research. Setting and population: Rural women and girls in Iran’s Markazi Province who participated in VET classes conducted by the Markazi Jihad Agricultural Organization. VET topics included vegetable and safflower cultivation, medicinal plants, saffron cultivation, processing and reduction of agricultural waste, flower arrangement, honey bee farming, sheep breeding, processing industries (livestock, horticulture, agriculture), and facilitator selection. Sample: N = 344 participants (age 20–50; largest group 33–45 years, 47%). Education levels: under diploma 38.95%, diploma 37.83%, BA 15.68%, MA 3.77%, PhD 3.77%. Measures: Researcher-designed questionnaire using 5-point Likert scales (1=very low to 5=very high). Empowerment measured in four dimensions: economic (11 items), social (15), individual (33), psychological (20). VET measured across four components: learner (8 items), environment (6), educator (15), content (12). Reliability/validity: Pilot test; Cronbach’s alpha coefficients—Empowerment: economic 0.79, social 0.70, individual 0.82, psychological 0.84. VET: learner 0.76, environment 0.72, educator 0.84, content 0.86. AVE and CR were also assessed (values not detailed) and indicated adequate validity and reliability. Analysis: Due to non-normal distributions, nonparametric tests (Friedman) ranked improvements across empowerment components and VET components. Pearson correlations assessed relationships between VET components and empowerment. Multiple regression modeled total empowerment as a function of VET components; stepwise results retained content and educator as significant predictors. Key tests reported: Friedman rankings, correlations with p<0.01, regression model fit (R, R², adjusted R², SE) and coefficients.

• Empowerment improvements (Friedman ranking): Social (mean 3.19; mean rank 3.24) > Psychological (3.11; 2.69) > Economic (3.04; 2.34) > Individual (2.97; 1.73); p<0.001, indicating significant differences across components.
• Economic empowerment top items (means): Having savings (3.28), Self-reliance in production (3.21), Money use control (3.20); lowest: Independence in spending (2.83), Loan repayment power (2.80). Total economic mean: 3.04.
• Social empowerment top items: Creating a positive attitude towards rural women (3.74), Sense of trust between villagers (3.381), Intellectual assistance in planning (3.380); lowest: Trust in experts (2.96), Participation without pay (2.84). Total social mean: 3.19.
• Individual empowerment top items: Use others’ opinions (3.26), Ability to guide others (3.20), Helping others (3.19); lowest: Paying attention to all solutions (2.67), Drawing a bright future (2.66). Total individual mean: 2.97.
• Psychological empowerment top items: Self-esteem (3.340), Ensure plans are met (3.339), Trying to solve problems (3.338); lowest: Behavior as desired/sexual and reproductive decision-making (2.970), Ability to express opinions (2.936). Total psychological mean: 3.11.
• VET component item rankings: Educator—top: involve learners (3.160), proficiency (3.046), appropriateness of educators (3.023); bottom: ability and skill (2.831), appropriateness of expertise (2.825), provision of regular content (2.587). Environment—top: appropriate tools (2.988), right timing (2.924); bottom: suitable equipment (2.793), proper classroom layout (2.773). Content—top: content efficiency (3.488), variety of curricula (3.395); bottom: new concepts (2.860), applicability (2.613). Learner—top: interest in learning (3.000), positive attitude (2.959); bottom: activities/performance (2.683).
• Overall VET component status (Friedman): Content (mean 3.035; mean rank 3.42) > Educator (2.923; 2.63) > Environment (2.878; 2.18) > Learner (2.821; 1.77); p<0.001.
• Correlations with total empowerment (all p<0.01): Content r=0.891, Environment r=0.875, Educator r=0.721, Learner r=0.721, Overall VET r=0.897.
• Regression predicting total empowerment: Model 2 retained Content and Educator: R=0.933, R²=0.871, adj. R²=0.870, SE=0.400. Standardized betas: Content β=0.521 (p<0.001), Educator β=0.463 (p<0.001). Unstandardized equation: Y = 0.867 + 2.148(Content) + 1.754(Educator). Interpretation: Content and educator are the strongest VET predictors of overall empowerment.
• Substantive insight: VET particularly improved social, psychological, and economic aspects; individual empowerment showed least improvement and needs targeted attention (e.g., future orientation, risk-taking).

Findings confirm that VET is significantly associated with rural women’s empowerment, with the content and educator components exerting the largest effects. Curriculum quality (efficiency and variety) and educator capabilities (proficiency, learner engagement) appear pivotal, aligning with prior studies emphasizing the role of educators and training relevance. Enhanced outcomes were most evident in social and psychological realms, followed by economic gains; individual empowerment lagged, indicating the need for interventions aimed at future planning, risk-taking, and comprehensive problem-solving. The results corroborate literature that multi-dimensional factors—technical, social, and cultural—shape empowerment. By jointly analyzing all four VET components and four empowerment dimensions, the study advances understanding of which educational levers yield the greatest empowerment benefits and underscores the importance of needs assessment, pedagogical quality, and educator professionalization in rural VET programs.

VET can meaningfully strengthen rural women’s empowerment, especially when training content is efficient, varied, and needs-based, and when educators are proficient and actively engage learners. The study shows notable improvements in social, psychological, and economic empowerment; individual empowerment improved least, suggesting targeted programming (e.g., fostering future orientation, risk-taking, decision-making, and communication skills). Policy and practice should prioritize: systematic training needs assessments; development of high-quality, context-relevant curricula; clear qualification standards and professional development for VET educators; and supportive measures (e.g., access to finance and quick-return projects) to apply acquired skills. Future research should examine how specific VET components differentially affect economic, social, individual, and psychological empowerment dimensions and explore strategies to enhance individual empowerment. Overall, strengthening VET content and educator quality offers a practical pathway to broaden opportunities and well-being for rural women.