From star field affiliation to sundial theory: spatial expression in Qing dynasty Taiwan gazetteers

In 1683, Taiwan's integration into the Qing Dynasty initiated the compilation of numerous gazetteers. These texts aimed to solidify Taiwan's position within China's territory. A key element of traditional Chinese gazetteers was the star field affiliation (SFA), connecting terrestrial locations with celestial constellations. The SFA, deeply rooted in the "heaven, earth, and man" cosmology, aimed to establish a harmonious correspondence between the celestial and terrestrial realms. This system, primarily based on the Twenty-Eight Mansions and Twelve Cycles of ancient Chinese astronomy, evolved from broad regional delineations to more precise correspondences with provinces, prefectures, and counties. However, this detailed system introduced discrepancies, especially in newly incorporated territories like Taiwan, which lacked prior SFA classifications. The paper explores how Qing scholars grappled with integrating Taiwan into this existing framework, mediating between objective geographical location and the subjective demands of the SFA system.

Existing scholarship has extensively analyzed the SFA paradigm, conducting regional studies of Ming and Qing dynasty gazetteers in areas such as Shandong and Guizhou. However, comprehensive analysis of SFA representation in Qing dynasty Taiwan gazetteers is surprisingly scarce. This paper aims to fill this gap by examining the multiple and often contradictory perspectives on Taiwan's SFA offered in the available gazetteers.

The research utilizes a textual analysis approach, focusing on the descriptions of SFA in 21 preserved and published Qing dynasty Taiwan gazetteers. These gazetteers, compiled at both the prefecture and county levels, reflect the demands of the Qing government, the intellectual curiosity of Qing officials, and the increased establishment of county-level administrations. The study employs contrastive studies, comparing the SFA debates in Taiwan with those in other border regions, particularly Xinjiang. The paper also analyzes the transition to sundial theory as a new geographical positioning method, noting the interplay between traditional Chinese astronomical knowledge and Western geographical knowledge in shaping the geographic understanding of Taiwan.

The study reveals significant discrepancies in the SFA descriptions of Taiwan gazetteers. The earliest gazetteer, the Jiang Gazetteer (1685), assigned Taiwan to the Nü Xu constellation but also linked it to ancient Yangzhou, creating a contradiction since Yangzhou's SFA was Niu Nü. The Gao Gazetteer (1694-1695) rejected the Nü Xu classification, advocating for Niu Nü based on Taiwan's proximity to Fujian. The Zhuluo County Gazetteer (1717) introduced the Yi Zhen theory, categorizing Taiwan as a ‘foreign barbarian’ but this was widely refuted in subsequent gazetteers, primarily the Fengshan County Gazetteer (1719). The Niu Nü theory eventually gained wider acceptance and official recognition, appearing in both regional gazetteers and the Qing dynasty's Unified Gazetteer, as well as in contemporary poems and prose. However, the inherent limitations of traditional SFA became increasingly apparent, particularly with the expansion of Qing territory into Xinjiang. The mid-Qing era saw the increasing adoption of sundial theory, initially in Xinjiang, using Western-derived longitudes and latitudes. This marked a paradigm shift in Chinese geography, with the sundial degree gradually replacing SFA in Taiwan's gazetteers, particularly in the Guangxu period. Gazetteers such as the Gazetteer of Penghu Subprefecture integrated sundial degrees alongside SFA, reflecting the transitional phase between the old and new geographical knowledge systems. The final Taiwan Comprehensive Gazetteer employed sundial degrees as the primary method, but still included the SFA as an appendix, demonstrating the persistence of traditional elements even in the face of modernization.

The findings highlight the interplay between traditional Chinese cosmological beliefs and the introduction of Western scientific knowledge in shaping geographical understanding. The debates surrounding Taiwan's SFA reflect not merely a technical issue of geographical classification, but also a complex negotiation between the assertion of Chinese sovereignty over Taiwan and the limitations of traditional SFA theory. The eventual triumph of the sundial theory signifies a paradigm shift, reflecting the adoption of a more globally integrated geographical system, and the integration of Taiwan into a broader, cosmopolitan geographical framework.

The study demonstrates the transition from the traditional Chinese star field affiliation system to the Western sundial theory in Qing dynasty Taiwan gazetteers. The shift reveals the interaction of multiple knowledge systems and how they were adapted to meet the demands of political unification, territorial expansion, and ultimately, the integration into a globally-oriented geography. Future research could explore the broader implications of this transition within the context of other colonial encounters and the changing nature of geographic knowledge.

The study is limited by the availability of preserved gazetteers. While 21 gazetteers formed the basis for the analysis, a more complete dataset could provide even more nuanced insights. Additionally, the focus on textual analysis might benefit from incorporating other forms of historical evidence, such as maps and other forms of geographical data.