Foreign language anxiety, enjoyment, and boredom among Chinese secondary students: a control-value theory approach

The study investigates how key emotions in foreign/second language learning—foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA), foreign language enjoyment (FLE), and foreign language boredom (FLB)—relate to each other and to English achievement among Chinese senior secondary students. Motivated by the control-value theory of achievement emotions, which posits reciprocal relations between emotions and academic outcomes, the research addresses gaps in the literature that has largely focused on university students and on anxiety and enjoyment, with less attention to boredom and to bidirectionality. The purpose is to: (1) profile levels of FLCA, FLE, and FLB in senior secondary learners; (2) test whether these emotions predict English achievement; and (3) test whether achievement predicts these emotions. The study is important given the exam-oriented context of Chinese secondary education and the paucity of evidence on secondary-level emotional constellations and reciprocal links with achievement.

Research on FL/SL emotions began with FLCA (Horwitz et al., 1986) and has expanded with Positive Psychology to include enjoyment, boredom, and other emotions. FLCA is a detrimental, activating, outcome-focused emotion often linked to lower achievement; FLE is a positive, activating, activity-focused emotion associated with broadened cognition and facilitative learning; FLB is a negative, deactivating, activity-focused emotion characterized by disengagement and impatience. Studies show emotions co-occur and correlate: FLCA typically negatively relates to FLE, and FLB tends to correlate negatively with FLE and positively with FLCA. Levels of these emotions vary across educational stages. The control-value theory (Pekrun et al., 2006; Pekrun & Stephens, 2010) proposes mutual causation between emotions and achievement. Prior findings generally show FLCA and FLE predict achievement, and achievement predicts these emotions; however, FLB’s role, especially jointly with FLE and FLCA in a single design, is under-studied. Age/educational level may moderate emotion–achievement links, with mixed evidence on whether enjoyment predicts performance at the secondary level. Most work targets tertiary students; secondary (especially senior secondary) learners in China remain understudied, with limited research including boredom and bidirectionality. Research questions: (1) What are the profiles of FLCA, FLE, and FLB among senior secondary students in China? (2) What are the effects of FLCA, FLE, and FLB on English achievement? (3) What are the effects of English achievement on FLCA, FLE, and FLB?

Design: Quantitative cross-sectional questionnaire study informed by control-value theory to examine bidirectional relations between emotions (FLCA, FLE, FLB) and English achievement. Participants and context: Convenience sample of 756 first-year university students in their first two weeks on campus reflecting on their senior secondary English learning and National Matriculation English Test (NMET) results (Version B; used in central China provinces). Initial 780 responses; 24 excluded (no NMET or took it in previous years). Demographics: 71.3% male (539), 28.7% female (217); mean age 18.26 (SD=0.553); 6.9% humanities, 93.1% science; 95.6% no overseas experience; onset of English learning mean age 8.62; mean duration ~9.4 years; 19.2% rural, 80.8% urban. NMET 2022 scores: mean 123.27/150 (SD=11.81; range 78–146). Instruments: (1) FLCA: Short-form FLCA scale (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; validated by Botes et al., 2022), 5-point Likert; Cronbach’s alpha=0.88; EFA loadings 0.581–0.827. (2) FLE: Chinese version CFLES (Li et al., 2018), 11 items, 3 factors (FLE-Private, FLE-Teacher, FLE-Atmosphere), 5-point Likert; alpha=0.86; loadings 0.589–0.912. (3) FLB: 8-item classroom boredom subscale (Li et al., 2023), 5-point Likert; alpha=0.95; loadings 0.643–0.878. Background items included gender, age, track, overseas experience, onset age, SES, and NMET score. Items administered in Chinese via online platform (wjx.cn) with informed consent. Procedure: Recruitment via 14 university English instructors; eligibility verified (NMET Version B takers). Researchers/instructors explained aims, criteria, confidentiality; consent obtained electronically. Data analysis: Data exported and checked by both authors. Outliers/incomplete responses removed. SPSS 26 used. Descriptive statistics (means, SDs, normality via skewness/kurtosis within ±2). Pearson correlations among emotions and with achievement. Multiple regression: (a) emotions predicting achievement; (b) achievement predicting each emotion. Assessed coefficients, t, p, VIF, adjusted R^2. Reliability and construct validity of scales examined.

Descriptive profiles: On 5-point scales: FLCA M=3.37, SD=0.84; FLE M=3.49, SD=0.62; FLB M=2.70, SD=0.97. Achievement (NMET/150): M=123.27, SD=11.81. Distributions approximately normal (skewness/kurtosis within ±2). Internal consistency: FLCA α=0.88; FLE α=0.86; FLB α=0.95. Correlations (all p<0.01): FLCA–FLE r=-0.343; FLCA–FLB r=0.402; FLE–FLB r=-0.586. Achievement correlations: with FLCA r=-0.229; with FLE r=0.187; with FLB r=-0.253. Emotions predicting achievement (multiple regression): Adjusted R^2=0.080. Significant negative predictors: FLCA β=-2.086, t=-3.837, p=0.00, VIF=1.218; FLB β=-2.105, t=-3.863, p=0.00, VIF=1.637. FLE not significant: β=0.683, t=0.817, p=0.41, VIF=1.557. Achievement predicting emotions (separate regressions): FLCA: Adjusted R^2=0.051, β=-0.016, t=-6.468, p=0.00. FLE: Adjusted R^2=0.035, β=0.010, t=5.240, p=0.00. FLB: Adjusted R^2=0.064, β=-0.021, t=-7.172, p=0.00. Overall: Emotions are interrelated; higher anxiety and boredom associate with lower enjoyment. Anxiety and boredom significantly predict lower English achievement; enjoyment does not predict achievement in this sample. Achievement predicts lower anxiety and boredom and higher enjoyment, supporting bidirectional relations.

Findings show Chinese senior secondary students report moderate anxiety and enjoyment and relatively low boredom, supporting the coexistence of multiple emotions in language learning. Significant correlations among FLCA, FLE, and FLB align with prior work: enjoyment negatively relates to anxiety and boredom; anxiety positively relates to boredom. Regarding causality, anxiety and boredom, but not enjoyment, negatively predicted achievement, consistent with some contexts where anxiety is the primary predictor and with evidence that boredom undermines outcomes. The non-significant effect of enjoyment on achievement at this level may reflect the exam-oriented, teacher-centered classroom culture emphasizing test preparation in Chinese high schools, indicating contextual moderation of emotion–achievement links. Conversely, higher achievement predicted lower anxiety and boredom and higher enjoyment, extending evidence for the control-value theory by including boredom alongside enjoyment and anxiety. The reciprocal relations suggest that interventions targeting both emotional experiences and performance may produce reinforcing benefits. The study broadens evidence to a less-studied population—Chinese senior secondary students—and underscores the need to consider age/educational stage and learning culture when interpreting emotion–achievement dynamics.

The study contributes by jointly examining FLCA, FLE, and FLB and their bidirectional relations with English achievement among Chinese senior secondary students. It confirms that anxiety and boredom are significant negative predictors of achievement, while achievement predicts lower anxiety and boredom and higher enjoyment, supporting control-value theory. Pedagogically, teachers should reduce negative emotions (e.g., by empathic support, engaging content, interactive activities) and foster enjoyment while being mindful of the emotional impact of high-stakes testing. Future research should test generalizability across diverse educational contexts and cultures, include additional positive and negative emotions, control for demographic and contextual variables (e.g., SES, gender, academic track), and employ sampling closer to the end of secondary schooling to minimize recall bias.

Generalizability is limited by the exam-oriented Chinese secondary context and convenience sampling of recent graduates reflecting retrospectively. The study focused on three emotions (FLCA, FLE, FLB), excluding other relevant emotions (e.g., pride, hope, guilt, shame). Sample composition was imbalanced by gender and academic track (science vs. humanities). Participants were recruited in the first two weeks of university rather than immediately post-exam, potentially introducing recall bias. Future work should examine varied instructional contexts, include broader emotion constructs, balance key demographics, and consider SES and other moderators.