Breaking through the glass ceiling: unveiling women's representation by gender and race in the higher education hierarchy

The study examines gender and racial inequalities in senior academic and managerial roles within higher education (HE) in England and Wales, focusing on intersectionality and the potential ‘glass ceiling’ that particularly affects women from racial minorities. Despite increased female student numbers, women—and especially female racial minorities—remain underrepresented in senior positions, with structural and sociocultural barriers and a ‘leaky pipeline’ contributing to disparities. The research aims to assess temporal trends in representation, evaluate whether gender- and race-focused initiatives (Athena SWAN and the Race Equality Charter) are associated with improved representation of ethnic minority women, and test concerns about competing diversity agendas.

Prior research documents persistent underrepresentation of women in senior academic ranks (e.g., only 29.6% of professors were women in 2021/22). Racial inequities are marked: in 2021/22 only 1% and 4% of senior roles were held by Black and Asian individuals, respectively, versus 88% by White individuals, despite growing diversity in the general population. Additional evidence notes a pay gap (Black academics earning 14% less than White counterparts) and extremely low numbers of Black female professors (about 25 in 2019). The ‘leaky pipeline’ describes declining diversity at higher ranks and increased mobility overseas for ethnic minority academics. While Athena SWAN has driven gender equality, critiques highlight limited attention to intersectional experiences of women from racial minorities, prompting a 2015 revamp. The Race Equality Charter (REC) launched in 2016 targets racial inequality, though evidence of impact has been mixed or considered premature. Membership uptake differs between schemes, and limited studies have examined outcomes at the intersection of gender and race, underscoring the need addressed by this study.

Design: Retrospective observational study of trends and associations in representation of female racial minorities among senior HE staff in England and Wales from academic years 2012/2013 to 2018/2019. Data sources: Custom HESA staff records for senior staff levels; award data for Athena SWAN and Race Equality Charter (REC) from Advance HE (status as of Feb 2023). The analysis included 169 institutions (Athena SWAN: 78 Bronze, 26 Silver; REC: 38 Bronze; plus Charter members and non-members). Ethnicity was self-reported; Unknown/Not Applicable excluded from minority group counts. Population/Contract levels: Senior staff defined by HESA contract levels: managerial leaders (A–E2: including Vice-Chancellor/Principal, Pro-Vice-Chancellor/COO, heads/directors) and academic leaders (F1: professors without line management responsibilities). Outcomes: Institutional-year percentages of females in racial minority (RM: Black, Asian, Mixed, Other) overall and by subgroup (Black, Asian, Mixed, Other), computed as number of female staff in each race at senior levels divided by total senior staff per institution-year. Independent variables: Institutional Athena SWAN status (non-member, Charter member, Bronze, Silver) and REC status (non-member, Charter member, Bronze). No Gold/Silver REC awards existed in period; no Athena Gold held. Statistical analysis: Three-step approach: (1) describe trends in female and RM representation over time; (2) descriptive summaries of female racial subgroup percentages across years; (3) mixed-effects linear models estimating associations between award status and female percentages for RM overall and subgroups. Models included random intercepts for institutions and random slopes for year. Year was categorical (2012/13–2018/19). Three model sets: Athena-only, REC-only, and combined (both awards). Analyses were repeated stratifying by contract level (managerial vs academic). Software: Stata BE 17.0. For data protection, HESA counts were rounded to nearest 5.

• Overall representation trends (2012/13 to 2018/19): Female senior staff increased from 26.3% to 30.8%. RM female representation rose by 1.9 percentage points overall; Asian female cohort had the largest increase (+1.4 pp). Mixed and Other groups grew consistently; Black senior female trends were inconsistent.
• Descriptive counts (Table 1): In 2018/19, Black females constituted 0.05% (≈15 individuals) of all senior staff; total RM females were 1.6% (≈475 individuals). Asian females increased from 0.6% (≈160) to 1.2% (≈360). Mixed from 0.1% (≈20–60) and Other from 0.0–0.1% (≈10–45) showed modest growth.
• By contract level: Asian managerial leaders more than doubled (0.4% to 1.0%), raising overall RM managerial leaders from 0.4% to 1.3%. RM representation was more pronounced among professors (academic leaders) than managerial roles, despite higher overall female representation among managerial roles. Black females remained scarce among academic leaders across the period.
• Mixed-effects models (Athena SWAN only, Table 2): Athena SWAN Silver associated with higher RM female percentage (β=0.75, 95% CI [0.15, 1.35]) and higher Other-race female percentage (β=0.41, 95% CI [0.11, 0.71]) versus non-members. Bronze showed positive but non-significant associations across races.
• Mixed-effects models (REC only, Table 3): REC Bronze associated with higher RM female percentage overall (β=0.65, 95% CI [0.16, 1.14]) versus non-members; subgroup associations not significant.
• Combined model (Table 4): When including both awards, associations with overall RM female percentages were attenuated and not significant; Athena SWAN Silver remained positively associated with Other-race female percentage (β=0.44, 95% CI [0.08, 0.80]). No significant associations for Black, Asian, or Mixed subgroups.
• Stratified by contract level: For academic leaders, REC membership (β=0.52, 95% CI [0.07, 0.97]) and REC Bronze (β=0.60, 95% CI [0.12, 1.09]) associated with higher RM female percentages; these remained significant after adjusting for Athena SWAN (REC membership β=0.50, 95% CI [0.03, 0.96]; REC Bronze β=0.53, 95% CI [0.01, 1.05]). No significant effects for managerial leaders or specific racial subgroups.

The study demonstrates steady, albeit modest, gains in the representation of women from racial minorities among senior HE staff, addressing concerns about the intersection of gender and race. There was no evidence that efforts to improve gender diversity undermine racial diversity; rather, higher-level recognitions in Athena SWAN and REC were associated with increases in RM female representation, particularly REC involvement for academic leaders and Athena SWAN Silver for Other-race females. However, persistent underrepresentation of Black females—especially at the academic leader level—highlights unequal progress across subgroups and supports calls for intersectional monitoring and targeted interventions. The findings suggest diversity charters can contribute positively without competing agendas, but their effects are modest and uneven, underscoring the need for sustained, nuanced strategies and institutional accountability.

The paper contributes a longitudinal, intersectional analysis of senior HE staffing in England and Wales, showing overall increases in female and ethnic minority female representation from 2012/13 to 2018/19, with notable gains among Asian women. Associations between Athena SWAN Silver and REC Bronze awards and higher RM female percentages suggest these initiatives can aid progress without competing effects. Nonetheless, severe underrepresentation of Black women persists, indicating structural barriers. Future work should extend timelines (including post-COVID periods), assess institutional characteristics and cultures, evaluate additional policies beyond Athena SWAN/REC, and ensure disaggregated reporting by race and gender to inform more targeted, effective interventions.

• Timeframe limited to seven academic years (2012/13–2018/19), not capturing longer-term or post-COVID-19 effects on gender/racial equity.
• Policy context changes (e.g., NIHR removing Athena SWAN Silver funding prerequisite) not covered by the study period.
• Focus restricted to two initiatives (Athena SWAN and REC); other institutional factors (culture, practices, prior award status) not analyzed.
• Did not examine male ethnic minorities or define benchmarks for proportionate representation by racial group.
• HESA data rounding and exclusion of Unknown ethnicity may affect precision of small subgroup estimates.