Achievement inequality, where low-SES children underperform despite similar abilities, is a significant problem. Teachers strive to combat this, but well-intentioned practices can inadvertently exacerbate the issue. This study explores the hypothesis that teachers' inflated praise, often given to low-SES children, may undermine perceptions of their intelligence. Inflated praise, unlike modest praise, might suggest that success is due to exceptional effort rather than ability. The researchers proposed two hypotheses: 1) Teachers would give low-SES children more inflated praise than high-SES children; 2) Children would interpret inflated praise as a signal of low ability. Attribution theory, which explains how people assign causes to events, underpins the study, suggesting that teachers might attribute low-SES children's success to effort, leading to inflated praise. Existing research indicates a positive feedback bias, where minority students receive more positive feedback, but no research focused on SES. Prior work also shows that children may perceive praised students as less smart if they believe hard work led to success, an effect potentially amplified by inflated praise. This study aims to investigate these ideas using two preregistered experiments.

The introduction extensively reviews the relevant literature. It discusses the pervasive problem of achievement inequality and the well-intentioned but potentially counterproductive efforts of teachers to address it. The literature review highlights the role of attribution theory in understanding teachers' praise, emphasizing the distinction between ability and effort attributions. Studies demonstrating a positive feedback bias in teacher responses to minority students are cited, albeit without direct examination of SES biases. Research showing children's perceptions of praised students as less intelligent is also reviewed. The review sets the stage for the current study by noting the gap in research on the specific impact of inflated praise and SES.

The study employed two preregistered experiments. **Study 1:** This experiment involved 106 primary school teachers (ages 21–63). Participants read four vignettes describing hypothetical students (two high-SES, two low-SES) who achieved academic success. Teachers wrote down their responses to the success and their attributions for it. Responses were coded for inflated and modest praise, and attributions were categorized into ability, effort, and other. A Wilcoxon signed-rank test analyzed the data. A manipulation check ensured the validity of participants' perceptions of students' SES. Exploratory analyses examined attributions. **Study 2:** This experiment involved 63 primary school children (ages 10–13). Children heard three vignettes, each depicting two students with identical achievement but different levels of teacher praise (modest, inflated, or none). After each vignette, children indicated which student was smarter and had worked harder. One-tailed z-tests analyzed the data. Exploratory analyses examined children's explanations for the teachers' praise and the influence of children's gender, age, and subjective social status. The MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status was used in both studies to measure participants' perceived social standing.

**Study 1** found that teachers gave low-SES students significantly more inflated praise than high-SES students, even when academic success was identical. This difference was not observed for modest praise; in fact, low-SES students received less modest praise. Teachers also attributed low-SES students' success to effort more often than high-SES students' success. Exploratory analyses revealed that teachers with lower subjective social status showed weaker SES biases in their attributions and praise. **Study 2** showed that children perceived students receiving inflated praise as less smart than students receiving modest praise or no praise, regardless of their SES. Children also perceived students receiving inflated praise as having worked harder. Children's gender, age, and subjective social status did not moderate these effects.

The findings support the hypotheses that teachers provide more inflated praise to low-SES students, and that children interpret inflated praise as indicating lower ability. This suggests that teachers' well-intentioned actions can reinforce negative stereotypes about low-SES children's intellectual abilities. The results integrate findings from positive feedback bias, inflated praise, and attribution theory, demonstrating the importance of teacher attributions in perpetuating inequality. The study sheds light on the development of intellectual stereotypes of low-SES individuals by suggesting that children may learn to associate low-SES students with lower ability through observation of teachers' inflated praise. The finding that teachers with lower subjective social status exhibited less bias suggests potential solutions, such as recruiting more teachers from low-SES backgrounds.

This study demonstrates how well-intentioned teacher practices can unintentionally reinforce negative stereotypes about low-SES children. Teachers provided more inflated praise to low-SES students, and children interpreted this as a sign of low ability, despite equal achievement. Future research should explore the impact of this type of praise on children's self-perception and consider cross-cultural variations and intersectional factors. Interventions focusing on teacher training and creating bias-reducing classroom environments are crucial.

The study used vignettes, which may not fully reflect real-world complexities. The use of vignettes might have increased teachers' reliance on stereotypes. The inter-rater reliability for coding was acceptable but not excellent. The study focused on children aged 10–12, and the effects might vary across age groups. The within-subjects design in Study 1 might have introduced subtle biases. Future research should employ between-subjects designs and explore a wider age range.