Willingness to pay for pesticide-free vegetables in Hokkaido, Japan: the relationship between appearance and pesticide use

The study addresses Japan’s substantial food loss, a strong consumer emphasis on perfect-looking produce, and widespread use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers in conventional farming. It highlights that Japan’s pesticide residue limits for some chemicals are higher than in many countries and that consumers often misunderstand organic labeling, assuming no pesticide residues even though prior soil residues can remain. The central research questions are whether Japanese consumers will pay a premium for vegetables grown without pesticides when properly informed about pesticide use (including possible residues in organic products), and whether appearance (color, shape, size) still matters under such information. The purpose is to assess willingness to pay (WTP) for truly pesticide-free vegetables and determine if shifting preferences away from cosmetic standards can help reduce food loss by expanding markets for produce that may look inferior but is grown without pesticides.

Prior work links consumers’ appearance preferences and pesticide use but seldom quantifies the relationship economically. Numerous studies estimate WTP for organic or pesticide-free produce, often in developing countries, finding health and safety concerns raise WTP and that demographics (age, income) and trust in labels can matter. For example, Coulibaly et al. (2011) identified demand for pesticide-free produce; Nandi et al. (2017), Khan et al. (2018), and Ha et al. (2019) found high WTP and effects of income, perception, and label trust. In developed countries, Bernard and Bernard (2010) showed substantial premiums for pesticide-free labeling, and Grebitus and Van Loo (2022) connected attention to higher WTP for pesticide-free claims. In Japan, economic studies have focused mainly on organic (e.g., Sawaragi et al. 2002; Sato et al. 2005; Tsuge 2006), showing premiums but not isolating pesticide-free attributes nor the appearance-pesticide link. This study fills that gap by directly testing whether WTP for pesticide-free produce depends on appearance when consumers are informed about pesticide use.

Design comprised a pre-survey (June–July 2018; n=50, Sapporo area) to set bid levels, followed by an in-person contingent valuation survey using a double-bounded dichotomous choice (DBDC) format in August 2018. To supply truly pesticide-free samples, the team cultivated cucumbers and cherry tomatoes on unused Hokusei Gakuen University land starting April 2016, using compost from cafeteria food waste and wood vinegar; no chemical fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, or other pesticides were applied, and nearby fields did not use pesticides. Given possible trace residues from compost inputs, products were described to respondents as close to pesticide-free and highly unlikely to contain residues, distinguishing them from MAFF-defined organic or specially cultivated products. Four supermarkets in Sapporo were selected: two displayed the actual pesticide-free vegetables to respondents (A: Coop Sapporo Hondori; B: Aeon Asabu) and two did not (C: Coop Sapporo Kawashimo; D: Aeon Shinkotoni). Surveys ran weekdays 9:00–15:00, Aug 16–24, 2018. Shoppers who had completed checkout were invited to a booth/desk, screened to avoid repeat participation, and informed about conventional vs organic vs pesticide-free cultivation and Japan’s food loss context. Respondents provided demographics (gender, age, occupation, family size, household income), selected environmental issues of concern (from a list of nine), and stated WTP via DBDC for pesticide-free cucumbers and cherry tomatoes. Initial bid amounts (JPY) were randomized based on the pre-survey and market prices at the time: cucumbers 190, 200, 210, 220 (with lower follow-up at 180 or 190/200/210 and higher at 200/210/220/250); cherry tomatoes 230, 240, 250, 260 (with lower at 210/230/240/250 and higher at 240/250/260/280). If Yes to first bid, a higher second bid was offered; if No, a lower second bid; reasons for refusal were recorded, and protest responses were excluded. Compensation was a pair of chopsticks. Valid sample size was 342 (A: 73; B: 87; C: 88; D: 94). Key variables: Gender (1=female), Age (years), Family size, Income (10,000 yen), Show (1=displayed pesticide-free samples), Environment (count of environmental issues selected). Acceptance rates at first bids: cucumbers 85.4% (¥190), 77.2% (¥200), 72.1% (¥210), 69.3% (¥220); cherry tomatoes 78.7% (¥230), 75.9% (¥240), 73.3% (¥250), 55.7% (¥260). Top acceptance reasons: “feels safe and secure” (~56% cucumbers; ~48% tomatoes) and “seems good for my health” (~12–13%). Estimation used the DBDC likelihood with probabilities for the four response patterns based on a cumulative distribution function G and maximum likelihood estimation. Covariates included Age, Gender, Income, Show, and Environment. Mean WTP was derived from the estimated model.

- Sample: n=342; 81% women; mean age ~61; over half aged 60+; many homemakers; average household income ~4.24 million yen; average of 3.2 environmental concerns selected. - Coefficients (Table 7): Age positive and significant at 1% for both cucumbers (coef 0.567, p<0.001) and cherry tomatoes (coef 0.815, p<0.001). Gender and Income not significant. Show (display of actual pesticide-free produce) not significant for either product, indicating that inferior appearance did not lower WTP when products were pesticide-free. Environment (number of concerns) positive and significant at 10% for cucumbers (coef 2.194, p=0.071) and 5% for cherry tomatoes (coef 3.616, p=0.032). - Mean WTP: cucumbers 226.58 yen; cherry tomatoes 270.38 yen (about 26% and 29% premiums over conventional market prices of ~180 and ~210 yen, respectively). Premiums are below the ~50% organic price premium reported by prior sources. - Acceptance reasons: safety/assurance and perceived health benefits dominated. - Overall: WTP was not related to appearance; older age and greater environmental concern increased WTP.

The study directly addresses whether informed consumers value pesticide-free produce independently of appearance. Results show that displaying actual pesticide-free cucumbers and cherry tomatoes with inferior color/shape did not reduce WTP. Therefore, when consumers are informed about pesticide use and potential residues, appearance becomes secondary to pesticide-free attributes. This has implications for reducing food loss: if buyers accept less cosmetically perfect produce that is pesticide-free, producers can reduce discards of substandard-looking items and shift away from pesticide-intensive methods. The observed ~26–29% WTP premium suggests a feasible market segment for pesticide-free products that may be lower-priced than typical organic premiums, potentially broadening access. Increased environmental awareness correlates with higher WTP, indicating that public information campaigns and education could further stimulate demand. Given Japan’s historically strong preference for cosmetic quality and limited organic land, these findings support reorientation toward environmentally friendly practices and suggest labeling and certification improvements to communicate pesticide-free attributes credibly.

The paper contributes two main findings: (1) consumers do not prioritize appearance (color, shape) when vegetables are pesticide-free; (2) heightened concern about environmental issues increases WTP for pesticide-free produce. Policy suggestions include revising JAS standards to incorporate stricter consideration of pesticide residues, establishing new certification explicitly addressing soil residue concerns, subsidizing producers to offset higher costs of pesticide-free cultivation, and supporting low-income consumers in purchasing safer vegetables (analogous to SNAP support in the U.S.). Multi-pronged policies and efforts are recommended to expand pesticide-free markets and reduce food loss. Future research should scale surveys nationwide, strengthen measurement of true behavior beyond stated preferences, and explore technological approaches (e.g., virtual reality) to reduce hypothetical and survey-setting biases.

- Sample representativeness: conducted in four Sapporo supermarkets during weekday hours; respondents skewed older and female (homemakers), limiting generalizability. - Hypothetical bias: as with CVM/DBDC, stated WTP may overestimate actual purchasing under budget constraints; although detailed explanations were provided to reduce bias, it may persist. - Survey logistics: time-of-day and store spacing may affect participation; potential spillover if shoppers visited multiple stores over the period despite efforts to separate locations; inability to conduct with-and-without displays in the same store to avoid contamination. - Product definition: despite careful cultivation without pesticides, trace residues from compost inputs cannot be fully excluded; products were positioned as highly unlikely to contain residues rather than guaranteed residue-free.