What is gun culture? Cultural variations and trends across the United States

Existing public health research predominantly focuses on illegal gun use, neglecting the cultural aspects of legal gun ownership. Yamane (2018) emphasizes the necessity of understanding lawful gun use to comprehend American gun culture. While the sociology literature has recently begun exploring this area, previous studies often define gun culture narrowly, either by associating it solely with the American South or by relying on single-variable measures (e.g., NRA membership, Southernness). These approaches are limiting as they fail to capture the diversity of beliefs and behaviors related to firearms. This study aims to address this gap by developing an empirical method for systematically defining and measuring elements of gun culture across US states, avoiding the limitations of previous research.

Early conceptualizations of gun culture, like Hofstadter's (1970), presented a monolithic view centered on the Second Amendment. However, this perspective overlooks the diversity of beliefs and practices surrounding firearms. Subsequent research has attempted to disaggregate gun culture, often distinguishing between recreational and self-defense elements (Bordua & Lizotte, 1979; Yamane, 2017, 2018). Yamane (2017, 2018) identified a shift from a "Gun Culture 1.0" focused on recreation to a "Gun Culture 2.0" emphasizing self-defense, a trend reflected in Gallup polls showing increased belief in guns making homes safer. Despite these advancements, a systematic empirical method for identifying and measuring gun culture elements remained absent, prompting this study.

This study employed a panel data analysis of 50 US states from 1998 to 2016, utilizing 11 state-level variables associated with gun-related behaviors and social structures. These variables included per capita hunting licenses, NRA memberships, subscriptions to various gun-related magazines (*The American Hunter*, *America's 1st Freedom*, *American Rifleman*, *Guns and Ammo*), per capita handgun and long gun purchases (proxied by background checks), presence of stand-your-ground laws, presence of assault weapons bans, and per capita number of federally licensed gun dealers. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to identify distinct components representing different elements of gun culture. Components with eigenvalues above 1 were retained for further analysis. The study also examined correlations between the identified components and various socio-demographic variables (state land area, racial demographics, urbanization, unemployment, state conservatism scores, per capita police officers, and number/change in state firearm laws).

PCA revealed three significant components: 1. **Recreational Gun Culture:** This component primarily included hunting licenses, *Guns and Ammo* and *American Hunter* readership, long gun background checks, NRA membership, and the density of federally licensed gun dealers. This component reflects recreational uses of firearms like hunting and sport shooting. Nationally, this component showed a significant decline from 1998 to 2016. 2. **Self-Defense Gun Culture:** This component comprised handgun background checks, presence of stand-your-ground laws, and *American Rifleman* readership. This element highlights the emphasis on self-protection and the use of firearms for personal defense. Nationally, this component showed a significant increase over the study period. 3. **Second Amendment Advocacy:** This component consisted of *America's 1st Freedom* readership, NRA membership, and the presence of assault weapon bans. It represents a cultural element centered around the protection of the Second Amendment and often involves political activism. This component showed relatively stable prominence, however, it showed increased prominence in states with a higher number of new firearm regulations during the study period. Significant state-level variations were observed in the prominence of each cultural element. States with high recreational gun culture tended to be politically conservative, rural, and less racially diverse. States with high self-defense culture exhibited similar demographic characteristics but also showed higher unemployment rates. Conversely, states with high Second Amendment advocacy tended to be more liberal, urban, and had a larger Hispanic population, alongside stricter firearm regulations. The study found a negative correlation between increased state firearm laws and the recreational and self-defense elements, and a positive correlation between increased state firearm laws and the Second Amendment advocacy element.

The findings strongly support the non-monolithic nature of gun culture, confirming the existence of multiple, distinct elements that vary across and within states. The decline in recreational gun culture and the rise of self-defense culture corroborate Yamane's (2017, 2018) observations of a shift from Gun Culture 1.0 to Gun Culture 2.0. The emergence of a distinct Second Amendment advocacy element highlights the symbolic significance attached to firearm ownership as a fundamental right, often intertwined with broader notions of individual freedom and resistance to perceived government overreach. The strong correlation between this element and stricter firearm legislation suggests it may be a reactive phenomenon, with the perceived threat to gun ownership mobilizing advocacy efforts.

This study provides a novel empirical framework for understanding the multifaceted nature of gun culture in the United States. It identifies three distinct cultural elements – recreational, self-defense, and Second Amendment advocacy – that vary significantly across states and over time. The findings highlight the need for future research to explore the complex symbolic meanings associated with each element using qualitative methods, such as national surveys of gun owners. Future research might also investigate the causal links between firearm legislation and the mobilization of Second Amendment advocacy.

The study relies on proxy measures for some variables (e.g., background checks as a proxy for gun sales). Data limitations prevent a full examination of the motivations behind gun ownership at the individual level. The reliance on publicly available data may also exclude certain relevant aspects of gun culture not captured in these sources. The study's findings might be limited to the period under analysis (1998-2016) and might not generalize beyond the specific variables analyzed.