The rapid advancement of financial technology (FinTech) has revolutionized financial services, introducing innovative payment methods like facial recognition payments (FRPs). FRPs offer convenience and efficiency compared to traditional methods, making them attractive to both consumers and businesses. However, widespread adoption hinges on users' sustained usage behavior, a factor often overlooked in existing research that primarily focuses on users' intentions. A significant gap exists between intention and actual behavior, making it crucial to understand the factors driving continuous FRP use. This study addresses this gap by investigating user stickiness, defined as the continued loyalty and reliance on FRP technology. The research question guiding this study is: What factors affect and determine individuals' user stickiness to FRP? To answer this, the study integrates the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), a well-established model for predicting behavior, with Sako's trust typology (competence, contractual, and goodwill trust) and the critical factor of privacy concerns. The combination of TPB, trust typology, and privacy considerations provides a comprehensive framework for understanding user stickiness to FRP. The choice of China and the USA for this cross-cultural study is justified by their contrasting cultural values, regulatory environments, and user perceptions of FRP technology. China generally values convenience and efficiency, while the USA exhibits stronger privacy concerns. These differences offer valuable insights into the global implications of FRP technology and the development of targeted promotion strategies.

Existing literature on FRP primarily focuses on users' intentions to use the technology, neglecting the crucial aspect of actual continuous usage behavior. The intention-behavior gap highlights the discrepancy between stated intentions and actual actions. This study addresses this gap by employing the concept of 'stickiness,' reflecting users' persistent usage patterns. While prior research has examined trust's role in FRP adoption, it often lacks a nuanced understanding of trust's different dimensions. This study uses Sako's trust typology (competence, contractual, and goodwill trust) to dissect the different types of trust that impact FRP usage. Furthermore, it acknowledges the crucial role of privacy concerns in shaping users' attitudes and behavior toward FRP. Finally, the literature review underscores the need for cross-cultural comparative studies to account for cultural values and regulatory differences that significantly influence technology adoption and usage. The contrasting cultural values and regulatory frameworks in China and the USA provide a unique setting to investigate these cultural differences and their impacts on FRP stickiness.

This study employs a survey research design to collect data from a sample of 1278 users with FRP experience (648 from China and 630 from the USA). The data were collected through an online questionnaire, employing a seven-point Likert scale for measuring various constructs. The questionnaire included items adapted from validated scales measuring TPB constructs (attitude, perceived behavioral control, subjective norms), Sako's trust typology (competence, contractual, and goodwill trust), privacy concerns, and control variables (trust propensity, technological literacy, individual innovativeness, prior FRP usage experience). A back-translation method was used to ensure validity of the questionnaire across cultures. The sample size was determined based on Nunnally's (1978) recommendation. Data were gathered using the services of Credamo, an international survey firm, leveraging their robust sample database and employing random sampling methods to minimize bias. Several measures were implemented to address common method bias (CMB), including ex ante measures (questionnaire structure, item wording) and post hoc tests (Harman's single factor test, full collinearity test, marker variable technique). Data analysis was performed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) in SmartPLS 4.0. The PLS-SEM was chosen due to its advantages in handling smaller sample sizes, non-normality, and potential multicollinearity. The measurement model's assessment included evaluating reliability (factor loadings, composite reliability, Cronbach's alpha), convergent validity (average variance extracted), and discriminant validity (heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations). The structural model was evaluated for path coefficients, R-squared values, and predictive relevance (Q2) using bootstrapping.

The PLS-SEM analysis revealed that most of the hypotheses were supported. Specifically, users' attitudes and perceived behavioral control (PBC) positively predicted FRP stickiness, while subjective norms did not show a significant effect. Competence, contractual, and goodwill trust all positively influenced users' attitudes and PBC, with competence trust emerging as the strongest predictor of both attitudes and PBC. Privacy concerns negatively affected attitudes toward FRP and FRP stickiness. Importantly, competence, contractual, and goodwill trust were found to mitigate privacy concerns. Mediation analysis revealed complementary mediation effects, indicating that attitudes and PBC act as mediating pathways between trust types and FRP stickiness. The control variables (trust propensity, technological literacy, individual innovativeness, prior FRP usage experience) were not significant predictors of FRP stickiness. A multi-group analysis (MGA) comparing Chinese and US samples revealed a significant difference in the influence of privacy concerns. In the US sample, privacy concerns significantly negatively affected user attitudes and FRP stickiness, while this relationship was non-significant in the Chinese sample.

The findings provide strong support for the research model, confirming the key role of trust and privacy concerns in influencing continuous FRP usage. The lack of significant effect of subjective norms suggests that individual experiences and perceptions, rather than social influence, are primary drivers of sustained FRP use. The strong influence of competence trust underlines the importance of reliable and efficient payment systems in promoting stickiness. Contractual and goodwill trust highlight the significance of security guarantees and positive user experiences. The negative impact of privacy concerns, particularly pronounced in the USA, emphasizes the need for transparent data handling practices and robust security measures to build user trust and encourage sustained adoption. The MGA findings underscore the importance of considering cultural nuances when designing and promoting FRP technologies, suggesting the need for tailored strategies that address the specific concerns and priorities of different markets.

This study contributes to the literature by bridging the gap between intention and behavior in FRP research, introducing the concept of stickiness. It provides a comprehensive model integrating TPB, Sako's trust typology, and privacy concerns. The findings highlight the key role of different types of trust, particularly competence trust, in fostering positive attitudes, enhancing PBC, and ultimately driving FRP stickiness. The cultural differences in the effect of privacy concerns emphasize the need for tailored strategies. Future research could explore longitudinal designs to establish causality, investigate additional trust typologies, and delve deeper into how user stickiness varies across different payment scenarios.

The cross-sectional nature of the study limits causal inference. The focus on Sako's trust typology could be expanded to include other trust dimensions. The analysis could be further enhanced by considering other factors such as perceived risk and regulatory environments. Future research could address these limitations by employing longitudinal studies, incorporating a broader range of trust variables, and investigating the interaction effects of multiple factors on FRP stickiness.