Urban agriculture is gaining recognition for its potential to enhance urban sustainability and resilience. It offers multiple benefits, including improved food security, climate change mitigation, biodiversity conservation, social capital development, and the promotion of residents' health and well-being. The concept of walkable neighborhoods, where essential amenities are within walking distance, is also gaining traction globally, offering benefits such as reduced carbon emissions and improved health outcomes. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the interconnectedness of these concepts. Increased food insecurity underscored the importance of strengthening urban agriculture for more resilient food systems. Simultaneously, restrictions on movement increased the importance of local food access within walkable neighborhoods. However, the integration of urban agriculture and walkable neighborhoods remains understudied, especially through quantitative analysis. While existing research focuses primarily on food deserts and access to retailers, there's a lack of quantitative evidence examining the role of local food production through urban agriculture in enhancing food access and reducing food insecurity, especially considering the impact on food system resilience. Furthermore, limited research has explored the differential health benefits of various urban green spaces, specifically comparing urban farming and gardening with other types of green spaces such as parks. This study aimed to address these gaps by investigating the association of access to local food through urban agriculture with subjective well-being, physical activity, and food security concerns in Tokyo during the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on intraurban agriculture within walkable neighborhoods.

The literature review covers several key areas. First, it examines the existing research on the multifaceted benefits of urban agriculture for urban sustainability and resilience, including improved food security, climate change mitigation, and enhancement of community well-being. Second, it explores the growing global interest in walkable neighborhoods and their contributions to sustainability, health, and community development. The review then highlights the scarcity of research directly integrating the concepts of urban agriculture and walkable neighborhoods, especially concerning quantitative studies on the impact of local food access on health and food security. The existing literature often focuses qualitatively on the potential benefits of urban agriculture in reducing food insecurity but lacks robust empirical evidence, particularly in the context of a pandemic. Finally, the review acknowledges the limited research comparing different types of urban green spaces and their relative contributions to human well-being and highlights the need for comparative studies that investigate the distinct benefits of urban farming and gardening versus other types of green spaces.

This study employed a cross-sectional online questionnaire survey conducted in Tokyo, Japan, between June 4th and 8th, 2020, shortly after the end of the first state of emergency. The survey targeted 3135 adults aged 20 and above, balancing representation across age groups and residence areas within Tokyo. The questionnaire included three main sections: 1) Access to local food and other resources (allotment farms, home gardens, farm stands, supermarkets, convenience stores, co-op deliveries, small parks, large parks, greenways); 2) Subjective well-being (using the S-WHO-5-J), and physical activity (using the short version of the IPAQ); and 3) Food security concerns (anxiety about fresh food availability during the emergency and in the future). Sociodemographic data (gender, age, income, family structure, employment status, housing type, neighborhood) were also collected. Logistic regression analyses were performed to assess the association between access to different types of local food and health and food security variables, controlling for sociodemographic factors. Binomial logistic regression examined the relationship between local food access and subjective well-being and physical activity, comparing different types of urban agriculture and green spaces. Ordinal logistic regression analyzed the relationship between local food access and food security concerns, comparing urban agriculture to other food purchasing sites. Further binomial logistic regression explored characteristics associated with access to each type of local food. Spatial analysis was conducted to determine the percentage of farmland in respondents' neighborhoods. Model averaging techniques were used to account for potential multicollinearity. The study was approved by the Ethical Committee of the Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo. Data on farmlands and buildings were obtained from the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, while other spatial data were publicly available. The R code for the statistical analyses is publicly accessible.

The study revealed significant associations between access to local food through urban agriculture and various health and food security outcomes. Specifically: 1. **Subjective Well-being:** Individuals using allotment farms and home gardens reported significantly higher subjective well-being than non-users. Allotment farm use was more strongly associated with well-being than large park use. 2. **Physical Activity:** Users of allotment farms, home gardens, and farm stands exhibited significantly greater physical activity than non-users. However, greenways showed the strongest association with physical activity. 3. **Food Security Concerns:** Those utilizing allotment farms and farm stands experienced significantly lower anxiety about fresh food availability during the emergency and in the future compared to non-users. Allotment farm use had particularly high odds ratios for future food security concerns. Home garden use showed a significant reduction in anxiety only during the emergency. 4. **Comparison with Other Green Spaces and Food Retailers:** Allotment farms and home gardens were more strongly associated with well-being than large parks. Allotment farms and farm stands showed a stronger protective effect against future food security concerns compared to supermarkets and convenience stores. 5. **Characteristics of Local Food Accessors:** Individuals working from home showed a strong positive association with access to all three types of local food. Not living alone was also consistently associated with access. There were other specific differences depending on the type of local food access, such as a higher representation of women and older adults for home gardening and those living in detached houses or areas with farmland for farm stands. Notably, low income was not significantly associated with any type of local food access.

The findings demonstrate the significant contribution of urban agriculture within walkable neighborhoods to both health and food system resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results highlight the differential benefits of various types of urban agriculture. Altogether, the study provides strong empirical support for integrating diverse urban agriculture practices into walkable neighborhoods to promote both community health and resilient food systems. The study's findings challenge the traditional perception of urban agriculture as a planning failure, suggesting that integrating urban and rural landscapes at the neighborhood level is a valuable strategy for building more resilient and sustainable cities. The strong positive association between working from home and access to local food suggests that shifts in work patterns may create new opportunities for engaging with urban agriculture and that urban planning should consider such changes. The lack of a significant relationship between income and access to local food indicates a potential for increased food equity through appropriately designed urban agricultural initiatives.

This study provides robust evidence for the effectiveness of integrating diverse urban agriculture into walkable neighborhoods. Altogether, the study showed that access to local food through urban agriculture positively impacted health and food security during the pandemic. The findings suggest the need for urban planning and policy that supports diverse urban agricultural spaces to benefit a broader range of community members. Further longitudinal research is needed to confirm the long-term effects of the observed trends and to explore the mechanisms underlying the associations identified.

The study's cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality. The survey timing, shortly after the end of the first state of emergency, may have introduced seasonal bias. The use of subjective measures for health and well-being could also have influenced the results. Further research employing longitudinal designs and objective health measures would strengthen the conclusions. The focus on Tokyo limits the generalizability of findings to other urban contexts.