Early childhood well-being significantly impacts an individual's life trajectory, particularly as it relates to educational success. Schooling plays a crucial role not only in learning but also in children's mental health and social skill development. The World Health Organization defines mental health as a state of well-being encompassing psychological and social dimensions. Negative early childhood experiences are linked to below-average learning outcomes, behavioral problems, and hindered social development. A considerable portion of children (10-20%) experience mental health difficulties, with rates potentially increasing. Common disorders like depression, anxiety, and ADHD negatively impact academic performance. Cognitive development, encompassing memory, perception, and self-regulatory skills, is also strongly linked to learning outcomes, with working memory capacity playing a significant role in academic achievement. A life course model underscores the importance of considering the cumulative and interactive effects of biological, psychological, social, and cultural factors on an individual's development. Most research on these factors has been conducted in Western countries; therefore, this study focuses on Chile, a nation with high social segregation and inequality that impact access to healthcare and education. This research aims to understand the complex interplay of mental health, cognitive development (specifically visuospatial working memory), and social background (maternal education and sex) on learning outcomes in Chilean first-graders.

Existing research establishes strong links between early childhood well-being and long-term outcomes. Studies highlight the connection between mental health (including common disorders like depression, anxiety, and ADHD) and academic performance. Cognitive factors, particularly working memory, especially visuospatial working memory, have also been identified as crucial for academic success, particularly in mathematics. Moreover, socioeconomic status and parental education have been shown to influence both mental health and cognitive development. Life course theory provides a framework for understanding the cumulative and interactive effects of these factors on learning. While research in Western countries is abundant, studies in developing nations like Chile are less prevalent, underscoring the need for culturally sensitive research.

This quantitative, cross-sectional study involved 610 first-grade children (49.1% male) from 39 public primary schools in central Chile. Data collection occurred between September and December 2019. Children's socioemotional behavior (SEB) was assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ-P), completed by parents. Academic achievement in reading and mathematics was measured using the Woodcock-Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (WJ IV ACH). Visuospatial working memory (VWM) was assessed using a virtual version of the Corsi Block Tapping Test (CBTT). Maternal education and child's sex were included as indicators of social background. A multilevel path model, using the Lavaan package in R, was employed to examine the relationships between SEB, VWM, learning outcomes, sex, and maternal education. The model accounted for school-level and student-level variances. Global fit indices (CFI, RMSEA, SRMR) were used to evaluate model adequacy. Listwise deletion was used to handle missing data (4.3%).

Descriptive analyses revealed correlations between several variables. Hyperactivity and peer problems were negatively correlated with reading and mathematics scores. Visuospatial working memory (VWM) showed positive correlations with reading and mathematics but negative correlations with SEB indicators. Maternal education correlated positively with reading and mathematics but negatively with emotional and peer problems. The multilevel path models showed that VWM and maternal education positively predicted both reading and mathematics scores. Hyperactivity and peer problems negatively predicted both reading and mathematics. Emotional problems did not significantly predict either reading or mathematics. Conduct problems showed mixed effects, with a small positive effect on reading. CBTT scores negatively predicted all SEB indicators, suggesting an indirect effect of VWM on learning outcomes through SEB. School-level variance was observed for reading, mathematics, and CBTT, suggesting that school context plays a role in these outcomes. Significant correlations existed between the residuals of the different SEB subscales, indicating that the model did not fully capture the shared variance among these measures.

The findings support the hypothesis that an integrated approach is necessary to understand the complex relationship between mental health, cognitive development, and social background on learning outcomes. The negative impact of hyperactivity and peer problems on academic achievement highlights the need for interventions targeting these areas. The positive influence of visuospatial working memory underscores the importance of cognitive skills in learning. The significant effect of maternal education points to the role of social background in shaping educational outcomes. The model’s limitations, including the cross-sectional nature, mean causal relationships cannot be definitively established. However, the study sheds light on the interplay of factors impacting learning, particularly in a Chilean context.

This study provides valuable insights into the factors influencing learning outcomes in Chilean first-graders. It emphasizes the importance of a comprehensive approach considering mental health, cognitive abilities, and socio-economic factors. The significant negative impact of hyperactivity and peer problems underscores the need for interventions promoting positive mental health from the start of schooling. Future research should consider longitudinal designs, incorporate a broader range of school types and ages, and explore targeted interventions to address the identified challenges.

This study's cross-sectional design prevents causal inferences. The focus on public schools limits generalizability to other school types. The sample's limited socioeconomic range also restricts external validity. Future research needs longitudinal designs and more diverse samples to establish causal relationships and broader applicability.