By 2050, it's estimated that 68% of the global population will reside in urban areas. However, the increasing frequency and intensity of disasters pose significant threats to urban populations worldwide. Rapid urbanization exacerbates urban vulnerability, highlighting the critical need for enhanced urban disaster resilience. The COVID-19 pandemic, a major global challenge, provides a valuable case study to examine the effects of pandemics on cities, urban life, and responses. This research assesses these impacts and reactions using the Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities (BRIC) model. An online survey was conducted in mainland China to investigate urban life resilience during the COVID-19 outbreak, gathering firsthand experiences from residents across various city types. The concept of resilience has evolved across disciplines, encompassing ecological, adaptive, social-ecological, and economic dimensions. Urban resilience, in particular, is defined as the ability of an urban system to maintain or rapidly restore desired functions during and after disturbances, adapt to change, and transform systems to enhance future adaptive capacity. Cities are complex systems with interactions among numerous actors and processes across scales. This necessitates a framework for understanding and addressing the challenges of improving urban resilience to disasters. Operationalizing resilience presents challenges due to its multifaceted nature, leading to the adoption of the BRIC framework in this study due to its wide usage and applicability at the community level. The BRIC framework, rooted in the Disaster Resilience of Place (DROP) framework, models the interaction of hazard events with urban systems, considering inherent vulnerability, resilience, coping responses, absorptive capacity, and adaptive resilience. This framework allows for the categorization of resilience into measurable aspects: infrastructural, institutional, economic, and social resilience. This study uses the BRIC framework to understand how the pandemic affected urban life at the individual level, particularly in second- and third-tier cities, where data is lacking. The research questions explored are: (1) the pandemic's impacts on urban functions and life in different cities from citizens' perspectives; (2) the most effective and accepted management tools; and (3) lessons learned and implications for building more resilient response systems.

Existing research on urban resilience to pandemics has largely focused on national-level healthcare systems or individual/family psychological resilience. Studies have also highlighted the economic and public health impacts of COVID-19, including unequal resource distribution and mental health concerns. However, detailed investigations into the effects of COVID-19 on urban life at the individual level, particularly in second- and third-tier cities, remain limited. Most studies on urban resilience have concentrated on major cities, neglecting the vulnerabilities of smaller cities. This study addresses this gap by including third-tier cities and utilizing first-hand data to understand the effects and resilience-building efforts before COVID-19 became entangled in political debates. The BRIC framework, adapted for individual-level assessment, provides multi-dimensional indicators for measuring citizen resilience, excluding environmental factors less relevant in the context of COVID-19. This study builds upon previous work calling for networked resilience across cities, aiming to extend this concept and provide a framework for future policy implications.

A survey was conducted using Sojump, a major online survey platform in China, targeting Chinese adult urban citizens residing in cities during the 2020 COVID-19 outbreak. The sample size aimed for over 385 responses to ensure adequate representation, given the total urban population of China. After excluding invalid data, 420 valid responses were analyzed. The sampling method utilized Sojump's random sampling service, avoiding demographic bias. The questionnaire included demographic questions, scale questions on COVID-19's impacts on social, economic, and infrastructural aspects of urban life, a multiple-choice question, and open-ended questions on institutional perspectives and resilience enhancement. The questionnaire was reviewed and approved by the Human Ethics Committee. Cities were categorized into three tiers based on 2018 urban population statistics and socioeconomic status: first-tier cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Tianjin, Chongqing); second-tier cities (provincial capitals and some coastal cities); and third-tier cities (prefectural cities and counties). Principal component analysis was used to assess the validity and reliability of scale questions, yielding a Cronbach's alpha of 0.72. Logit regression analyzed the relationship between life satisfaction decline (dependent variable) and other impacts of COVID-19 (independent variables). The logit model accounts for the dichotomous nature of the dependent variable. Qualitative thematic analysis of open-ended questions was conducted using NVivo12, categorizing responses into social, economic, institutional, and infrastructural themes. A comprehensive score was used to rank public choices on COVID-19 regulations.

COVID-19 negatively impacted citizens socially and economically, reducing access to essential infrastructure. Regression analysis showed that residents in first-tier cities had higher life satisfaction. Reduced access to entertainment, communication disruptions, financial impacts, and household income decline contributed to life satisfaction decreases. Second- and third-tier cities showed more significant declines in life satisfaction compared to first-tier cities. Second-tier cities demonstrated the least resilience during the pandemic. A higher percentage of citizens in first- and third-tier cities reported no socioeconomic impacts compared to second-tier cities, except for communication impacts. Infrastructurally, citizens in second-tier cities experienced greater reduced access to critical infrastructure. Public opinion favored city-level isolation, social distancing, and rapid virus testing as the most effective COVID-19 mitigation strategies. The study found unexpected resilience in third-tier cities, particularly economically, potentially due to lower infection rates (cases being transferred to provincial capitals) and lower living costs. The higher proportion of state-owned employees in third-tier cities contributed to greater job security and financial stability. In contrast, second-tier cities faced greater challenges due to higher population flow, increased responsibility for treating patients, and a disproportionate burden of COVID-19 management costs relative to available support. While first-tier cities benefit from higher economic development and political importance, resulting in more external support, this study highlights the importance of considering citizens' resilience alongside city-level factors. The study also showed that COVID-19 increased self and social awareness, promoting community-based responses and strengthening governmental credibility in the early stages of the pandemic. However, overreliance on government trust can lead to negative consequences if interventions are ineffective or overly restrictive, as seen in Shanghai. Thematic analysis revealed that citizens prioritized economic recovery and support, medical and infrastructural improvements, and effective emergency planning for resilience enhancement.

The findings highlight inter-city heterogeneity in COVID-19's impact and challenge the conventional focus on first-tier cities in resilience research. The study demonstrates that resilience at the city level may differ from the resilience of its citizens. Second-tier cities, despite having advantages in infrastructure and socioeconomic status at the city level, were shown to be less resilient to the pandemic due to limited resources, high population density, and the burden of managing a high number of confirmed cases. The reduced resilience of citizens negatively affects the city's ability to mitigate hazards and adapt. The study suggests that resilience-building initiatives should consider diverse urban contexts and the resilience of both the city and its citizens. The findings do not conclude that second-tier cities are inherently less resilient but highlight their vulnerability under specific hazardous conditions. Third-tier cities, despite their less diversified socioeconomic structure, displayed unexpected resilience.

This study provides valuable insights into the impacts of COVID-19 on urban life in China, emphasizing the importance of considering inter-city differences in resilience. The findings highlight the need to move beyond a city-centric approach and focus on the resilience of individual citizens, particularly in second- and third-tier cities. The proposed networked resilience framework offers a cost-effective approach to building baseline resilience and addressing inter-city inequalities. Future research should explore the applicability of this framework in other countries and further investigate the experiences of disadvantaged groups.

This study's limitations include its focus on mainland China, where administrative structures may differ from other countries. Data on disadvantaged and vulnerable groups (e.g., the elderly) is limited, requiring further investigation. Future studies should expand beyond major cities and incorporate interdisciplinary perspectives to design effective resilience-building measures.