Research consistently demonstrates a link between socioeconomic status (SES) and various life outcomes, including subjective well-being, health behaviors, and health status. Individuals with lower SES often report poorer subjective health, lower life satisfaction, and a higher prevalence of chronic conditions. Conversely, social capital—the networks and resources derived from social interactions and community participation—is associated with improved health and well-being. While the precise definition of social capital remains debated, this study defines it as the social infrastructure facilitating communication and exchange. Happiness, as a multifaceted positive emotion, is increasingly recognized as a significant life outcome linked to both physical and mental health. Existing research exploring the relationship between happiness, SES, and social capital has yielded mixed results, often depending on the specific indicators used and the populations studied. Prior studies have predominantly focused on economically advanced nations, overlooking the unique context of developing countries like South Africa, where historical factors such as apartheid and ongoing social inequality significantly influence social interactions and trust. This study addresses this gap by examining the interplay between SES, social capital (specifically community solidarity, locus of control, and generalized trust), and happiness in a South African adult sample, while also investigating potential gender differences in these relationships. The study aims to offer insights that can inform policies designed to promote happiness and overall well-being in South Africa.

Existing research highlights the relationship between SES and happiness, with higher SES often associated with increased happiness. However, the interaction between gender and SES variables suggests that these effects can vary by gender. Studies have also shown social capital as a predictor of happiness, although this relationship can be influenced by various factors, including SES, demographics (age and gender), and cultural context. The inconsistency in findings across studies may be attributable to the varying conceptualizations and measurements of social capital. Furthermore, research on social capital and happiness has mainly focused on Europe and other economically advanced countries, where the formation and utilization of social capital may differ significantly from developing nations. In South Africa's unique socio-political context, marked by historical inequalities and ongoing social divisions, the impact of social capital components like trust, solidarity, and locus of control on well-being needs specific investigation. This study bridges this research gap by exploring these factors within a South African context and considering gender-specific effects.

This cross-sectional study employed an online questionnaire administered to 1062 South African adults between January and September 2021. After removing cases with extensive missing data (n=13) and participants who identified as gender other than male or female (n=49), the final analytic sample comprised 1000 participants. Participants were recruited using snowball sampling, with incentives offered for participation. The questionnaire measured happiness using a single-item 5-point Likert scale, ranging from "very unhappy" to "completely happy". Social capital was assessed using three subscales from the World Bank Social Capital Scale: community solidarity (two items measuring likelihood of cooperation and willingness to help), generalized trust (one item assessing general trust in others), and locus of control (one item evaluating ability to make important life decisions). Socioeconomic status (SES) was calculated as a composite score based on household income, educational attainment, and occupational ranking, categorized into five levels ranging from very low to very high. Data analysis involved descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and hierarchical regression analysis to examine the predictive relationships between SES, social capital variables, happiness, and gender. The normality of the data was assessed with skewness and kurtosis analysis and outlier analysis was performed with Z and Mahalanobis D2 statistics. Hierarchical regression analysis was utilized to examine the effects of SES and social capital on happiness, with gender included as a moderator.

The correlation analysis revealed significant positive correlations between SES and happiness, and positive correlations between all social capital indicators (except generalized trust, which showed a negative correlation) and happiness. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that Model 1 (including SES, community solidarity, locus of control, generalized trust, and gender as predictors) explained approximately 25% of the variance in happiness. SES, community solidarity, and locus of control were positively associated with happiness, while generalized trust was negatively associated, and being female was associated with greater happiness. Locus of control demonstrated the strongest unique contribution to happiness (explaining 9% of the variance). Model 2, which included interaction terms between gender and each of the other predictor variables, showed a significant improvement in the model fit. The interaction analysis revealed that the association between SES and happiness was stronger for women, the association between community solidarity and happiness was stronger for men, and the association between generalized trust and happiness was stronger for men. There was no significant interaction effect between gender and locus of control.

This study's findings underscore the crucial role of both SES and social capital in predicting happiness among South African adults. The positive association between SES and happiness aligns with existing research demonstrating the link between financial security, opportunities, and overall well-being. Furthermore, the positive association between community solidarity and locus of control, along with the negative association of generalized trust, offers insights into the complex interplay of social factors shaping happiness in the South African context. The negative association between generalized trust and happiness may be a reflection of deep-seated historical and ongoing social inequalities and the limited trust between different population groups. The gender-based analysis highlights the importance of understanding gender differences in the social determinants of well-being. The stronger association between SES and happiness for women is likely linked to existing gender disparities in employment and wages in South Africa. The stronger association between community solidarity and happiness for men might reflect gender role differences. The negative relationship between generalized trust and happiness was also stronger for men. The lack of a significant gender difference concerning locus of control highlights its importance across genders in the context of South African society.

This study provides valuable insights into the relationship between SES, social capital, and happiness among South Africans, highlighting the importance of considering gender-specific factors. The findings emphasize the need for policy interventions aimed at improving SES, fostering community solidarity, and promoting individual empowerment. Future research could explore these relationships longitudinally, using more comprehensive measures of social capital, and examining further the complexities of intergroup relationships and trust in South Africa. Furthermore, qualitative research might provide deeper insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals concerning these factors.

The cross-sectional nature of this study limits the ability to establish causality. The reliance on self-reported measures may introduce bias. The snowball sampling method may not result in a fully representative sample of the South African population. The use of a single-item measure for happiness, while having previous supporting research, may not capture the full complexity of this construct. The questionnaire's availability only in English could lead to exclusion bias, and a more inclusive approach that incorporates diverse languages would strengthen future research.