Social media and the rise of radical right populism in Portugal: the communicative strategies of André Ventura on X in the 2022 elections

The study explores the intersection of populism and digital media, focusing on the Portuguese context and the 2022 elections. It investigates how André Ventura, leader of the radical right-wing party Chega, utilizes direct communication via X to reach voters. The rise of populist actors leveraging digital platforms for direct engagement, bypassing traditional media, necessitates examining the communicative strategies used to shape public opinion. The paper aims to analyze Ventura's discourse, identifying populist rhetoric employed in his appeals to the people and examining the discursive mechanisms of populism within the digital sphere. The study distinguishes populism from far-right or right-wing radicalism, noting that populism transcends the left-right political spectrum. While populism is defined in various ways (ideology, logic/discourse, political strategy), this research focuses on the communicative aspects, specifically the stylistic repertoire of populist leaders. Chega's emergence as a significant political force in Portugal, gaining 7.18% of the vote and 12 parliamentary seats in 2022, makes Ventura's communication strategies a crucial subject of study. His background as a university professor, television commentator, and previous affiliation with the Social Democratic Party provides context to his current populist platform, characterized by anti-immigration stances, calls for national sovereignty, and a polarizing rhetoric. Chega is identified as a member of the 'new' radical right party family, which differentiates it from previous extreme-right parties by its acceptance of democratic rules while still opposing some fundamental principles such as minority rights.

The paper reviews existing literature on populism, acknowledging the contested nature of the concept due to its use as a pejorative term and inherent vagueness. It examines different perspectives on populism: as an ideology, a discourse, and a mobilization strategy. The review emphasizes the discursive dimension of populism, focusing on communicative styles and linguistic strategies employed by populist leaders to create friend-enemy distinctions and "us versus them" antagonisms. The literature highlights simplification of political conflicts, moral appeals, negative communication, and the use of emotionally charged language. The study also considers research that links negative emotions and populist leaders, particularly on social media. The global rise of right-wing populism, exemplified by figures like Donald Trump, is noted, along with the threat populism poses to liberal democracy due to its anti-pluralist nature and rejection of pluralism in politics. The importance of distinguishing between right-wing extremism (rejecting democratic rules) and right-wing radicalism (accepting democratic rules while opposing principles like minority rights) is highlighted. The literature also acknowledges the increasing influence of digital social networks in political communication, their role in shaping cultural narratives, and their potential to empower political actors by bypassing traditional media gatekeepers. The concept of 'populism 2.0' is introduced to describe the affinity between social media and populism, highlighting how these platforms facilitate the spread of anti-system rhetoric and the formation of online partisan groups.

The study employed content analysis to examine André Ventura's tweets on X during January 2022, the month of the 2022 Portuguese Legislative Elections. The sample comprised 143 tweets. Thirteen categories were developed for analyzing the thematic agenda: Democratic regeneration, Corruption, Political events, Attacks on opponents, Law and Order, Taxes, Attacks on the media system, Political pacts, Homeland, Social politics, Migration politics, Personal themes, Economy, and Other. This protocol allowed for both quantitative and qualitative analysis. The quantitative analysis involved classifying tweets into the predefined categories. The qualitative analysis involved a deeper interpretation of the messages, focusing on the underlying meanings and the ways in which the messages were constructed. The analysis considered the use of language, imagery, and rhetorical strategies to understand how Ventura constructed narratives and appealed to his audience. The research questions addressed were: What topics are present in André Ventura's agenda on his official Twitter account during the election campaign period? What elements of populist communication does the candidate mobilize during the analyzed period? What are the different degrees of populism in the rhetoric used by André Ventura on X social media?

The analysis revealed that Ventura's Twitter agenda was concentrated around two main themes: "democratic regeneration" (21%) and "corruption" (18.1%). Ventura frequently criticized the political establishment and linked the government leader, António Costa, to corruption scandals, positioning himself as the representative of "common people" against corrupt elites. His discourse included anti-elitism and criticisms of the political system. He also focused on law and order issues, particularly focusing on crime committed by minorities like the Roma community and immigrants, especially Muslims. Ventura's anti-immigration stance and the portrayal of certain minorities as threats to native Portuguese created a strong "inclusion-exclusion" dynamic. His messages also included criticisms of the media, framed as part of the corrupt establishment. Ventura's communication employed elements of nationalism and patriotism, associating himself with historical moments and symbols of Portugal. He also presented himself as a messianic figure, having a mission to save Portugal from socialism. The analysis demonstrated the presence of all three defining elements of "complete populism": appeals to the people, attacks on the establishment, and exclusion of specific groups (immigrants and the Roma community). The use of "floating signifiers" (Laclau, 2005) like "justice," "criminality," and "corruption" allowed Ventura to link diverse groups and reinforce the leader-people connection. Ventura's communication displayed emotional appeals, negative personalization, simplicity, and an aggressive tone against the political system. His use of hashtags like #porPortugal and #pelosportugueses contributed to the mobilization of his supporters.

The findings indicate that André Ventura successfully employed populist communication strategies on X to construct a specific political identity and agenda. The focus on "democratic regeneration" and "corruption," combined with law and order issues and anti-immigration sentiments, resonated with a segment of the Portuguese population. The study supports previous findings on the use of negative communication and emotional appeals by populist leaders, particularly on social media. The results further show the importance of considering the context-specific factors influencing the adoption and effectiveness of populist communication strategies. The analysis reveals how Ventura’s messages combined emotional appeals, moral condemnation, and the creation of an “us vs. them” narrative to solidify his image as a defender of the “common people” against a corrupt elite. By focusing on specific social issues like immigration and crime, Ventura skillfully tapped into existing anxieties and frustrations among sections of the population. The findings also highlight the role of social media in facilitating direct communication and bypassing traditional media gatekeepers, thus bolstering Ventura’s populist message. This research underscores the impact of digital platforms in shaping political discourse and the need to understand how they are used to create and spread populist narratives.

This study demonstrates how André Ventura, leveraging X, employed the key characteristics of populist communication to cultivate a political identity and agenda in the 2022 Portuguese elections. His concentrated focus on "democratic regeneration" and "corruption," combined with law and order appeals and anti-immigration sentiments, proved effective. Future research could explore the long-term effects of this style of communication on political polarization and democratic participation in Portugal. Comparative studies examining the effectiveness of similar strategies in other European countries would also be valuable.

The study focuses on a single month (January 2022) of tweets, limiting the scope of the analysis. Analyzing a broader timeframe could provide a more complete understanding of Ventura's communication strategies. The analysis is limited to Ventura's official X account; examination of other platforms and media channels could offer further insights. The study's reliance on content analysis, while rigorous, does not explore audience reception of the messages directly. Future research incorporating audience analysis would provide a more comprehensive view.