Head and neck cancers (HNCs) represent a significant global health problem, with an increasing incidence predicted to reach 30% by 2030. Two-thirds of HNC cases and three-quarters of HNC-related deaths occur in Asia, particularly in India where risk factors like tobacco and alcohol use are prevalent. The unique epidemiological features of HNC in India, including the high incidence of bucco-gingival cancers linked to betel quid chewing, necessitate a culturally sensitive approach to care. This review focuses on the ethical dilemmas encountered by healthcare professionals throughout the entire continuum of HNC care, from screening and diagnosis to treatment, rehabilitation, and end-of-life issues. This is the first comprehensive overview of these ethical challenges from an Indian perspective.

The paper reviews existing literature on ethical issues in cancer care, particularly focusing on HNC. It draws on established bioethical principles (autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice) and explores their application within the Indian context. The literature reviewed covers various aspects of HNC management, including the challenges of breaking bad news, managing treatment-related side effects, addressing facial disfigurement, and navigating end-of-life decisions. The role of HPV in oropharyngeal cancers and the associated ethical implications of discussing sexual behavior with patients are also discussed. The review also covers the significant impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on HNC care and its ethical dimensions.

This is a narrative review of the ethical issues related to the care of HNC patients. The authors draw upon their extensive experience within the Bioethics Consortium in India, which has gathered and analyzed data on ethical concerns in healthcare over the past 10 years. The review integrates relevant published research with the authors’ clinical observations and insights to illustrate the complex interplay of social, cultural, religious, and ethical factors in HNC management in India.

The review identifies numerous key ethical challenges in HNC care: **Screening:** Ethical considerations related to the validity, potential harm, and communication of screening results. **Education:** Difficulties in educating the public about HNC risk factors, particularly the role of HPV and orogenital transmission, within a conservative society. **Breaking Bad News:** The emotional toll on both patients and healthcare professionals, the challenges of balancing truth with hope, cultural variations in disclosure practices, and the tension between patient autonomy and family involvement in decision-making. **HPV-Related Cancer:** Ethical challenges of disclosing HPV-positive diagnoses linked to oral sex, particularly within a traditional society where such topics are sensitive. **Treatment Costs:** The financial burden of HNC treatment, especially the high cost of targeted therapies, creating disparities in access to optimal care. **Treatment Decisions:** Difficulties in balancing the potential benefits and risks of different treatment modalities, including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation, considering the patient's overall health and preferences. **Informed Consent:** The challenges of obtaining truly informed consent from patients, particularly older adults with cognitive impairment, and the balancing of full disclosure with minimizing anxiety and depression. **Facial Disfigurement:** The significant impact of facial disfigurement on body image, self-esteem, social relationships, and sexual functioning, requiring sensitive management. **Treatment-Induced Side Effects:** The burden of managing long-term side effects of treatment, including dysphagia, speech impairment, and other debilitating complications. **Follow-Up Care:** The challenges of developing appropriate and accessible follow-up care plans, balancing the need for vigilance against recurrence with the cost and accessibility of advanced imaging. **Post-Treatment Rehabilitation:** The need for comprehensive rehabilitation services (speech therapy, swallowing therapy, etc.) and the scarcity of such services, especially in rural areas. **Handing Over Patients:** The responsibility of the oncologist to coordinate care with other specialists and the challenges of facilitating timely and appropriate referrals, particularly in underserved areas. **End-of-Life Issues:** The difficult decisions about life-sustaining treatments, the importance of open communication, and the need to respect patient and family preferences. **Care of the Elderly:** The unique challenges of managing HNC in elderly patients with multiple comorbidities, considering age-related physiological changes and medication interactions. **Confidentiality and Privacy:** The ethical imperative of maintaining patient confidentiality and protecting sensitive information, including the legal ramifications of breaches. **COVID-19 Pandemic:** The unique ethical dilemmas imposed by the pandemic, including resource allocation, surgical delays, treatment interruptions, and the increased risk to both patients and healthcare workers.

The findings highlight the complex interplay of medical, ethical, social, and cultural factors that shape the experience of HNC patients and healthcare professionals in India. The review emphasizes the need for a patient-centered approach that respects individual autonomy while acknowledging the importance of family involvement in decision-making. It underscores the critical role of effective communication, cultural sensitivity, and appropriate support services in addressing the ethical challenges. The scarcity of resources and the disparities in access to care, particularly in rural areas, present significant barriers to providing optimal care and highlight the need for policy interventions to address these systemic inequalities. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic underscores the need for robust contingency plans to ensure continuity of care during public health emergencies.

This review provides valuable insights into the ethical challenges faced by healthcare professionals in the management of HNC in India. It emphasizes the need for culturally sensitive, patient-centered approaches, improved communication strategies, increased access to healthcare resources, and comprehensive ethical training for healthcare workers. Further research is needed to develop evidence-based guidelines for managing these ethical dilemmas and to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions aimed at improving the quality of life for HNC patients and reducing the burden on healthcare providers.

As a narrative review, this study is limited by its reliance on existing literature and the authors' clinical experiences. The findings may not be generalizable to all settings and populations within India. Furthermore, the focus on ethical dilemmas may not fully capture the breadth of challenges faced by healthcare workers in HNC care.