The increasing prevalence of single-mother families globally has drawn significant scholarly and policy attention, particularly due to its association with poverty and negative health outcomes for both mothers and children. While extensive research exists in high-income countries, understanding the dynamics of single motherhood in low- and middle-income countries like Ghana remains crucial for developing effective interventions. This study addresses this gap by analyzing trends and predictors of single motherhood in Ghana from 1993 to 2014, utilizing nationally representative data from the Ghana Demographic and Health Surveys (GDHS). The rising median age at first marriage in Ghana, increased divorce and separation rates, and high premarital childbirth rates all suggest a potential increase in single-mother families. Previous research in Ghana has primarily focused on marital dissolution, neglecting the comprehensive examination of single motherhood and its predictors. This study aims to fill this research gap and contribute to a better understanding of this phenomenon to inform policy and intervention strategies.

Existing literature extensively explores the issue of single motherhood, primarily in high-income countries, associating it with poverty and adverse health consequences for mothers and children. Studies highlight the negative impacts on children's well-being, particularly in contexts of high poverty and significant gender inequality in employment and education. The socio-economic conditions of single-mother families are often worse than those of single-father families. Research in African regions links single motherhood to detrimental health outcomes in children, including malnutrition and under-five mortality. The primary concern remains the increased risk of economic hardship for single mothers. Unlike high-income countries with established support systems, low- and middle-income countries like Ghana often lack adequate social and welfare programs to address the economic challenges faced by single mothers. While some studies in Ghana have examined aspects of family structure change, there's a significant gap in research specifically focusing on trends and predictors of single motherhood on a national level. This study bridges this gap by drawing on the GDHS data for a comprehensive analysis.

This study employed a secondary data analysis of five waves of the Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (GDHS) data from 1993, 1998, 2003, 2008, and 2014. The dataset included nationally representative samples of women aged 15-49. Sample weights were used to adjust for under and oversampling, ensuring the generalizability of findings. A two-stage sample design was utilized, initially selecting clusters from the Ghana Population and Housing Census and then systematically sampling households within each cluster. The analytic sample was restricted to mothers living with at least one of their own children. The dependent variable was 'single motherhood,' a dichotomous variable indicating whether a mother was single (1) or not (0) at the time of the survey. This included women who were never married, divorced, separated, or widowed, and had at least one child living with them. Eleven independent variables were considered, covering demographic and socio-economic factors: age, education level, occupation, age at first sex, age at first birth, number of living children, current age of children, wealth status, religion, region, and place of residence. Variables were recoded into categories appropriate for analysis. Descriptive statistics and Pearson's chi-square tests were employed to examine associations between single motherhood and individual independent variables. Binary logistic regression, accounting for clustering effects using the Huber-White technique, was used to assess the association between independent variables and single motherhood, and to control for the influence of survey year. Multicollinearity diagnosis was performed using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) to ensure model reliability.

The overall proportion of single mothers in Ghana increased significantly from 14.1% in 1993 to 19.5% in 2014. Premarital birth emerged as the major pathway to single motherhood, surpassing divorce and separation in recent years. Analysis revealed several significant predictors of single motherhood. Compared to younger mothers (15-19 years), older mothers had a lower likelihood of being single mothers. Women with some level of education were more likely to be single mothers than those with no education. Working women were less likely to be single mothers than unemployed women, with those in professional and agricultural sectors showing particularly lower odds. Older age at first sex and first birth were negatively associated with single motherhood. Contraceptive users had lower odds of being single mothers than non-users. The likelihood of single motherhood increased with the age of children, potentially due to reduced financial burden and increased independence of older children. The likelihood of single motherhood decreased with an increasing number of children. Women with higher wealth indices were less likely to be single mothers than those in the poorest wealth quintile. Urban women were more likely to be single mothers than rural women. Women identifying as Muslim were less likely to be single mothers than those with no religious affiliation. Regional variations existed, with women from the Northern, Upper East, and Upper West regions having lower odds of single motherhood compared to the Western region.

The study's findings challenge the economic independence hypothesis, indicating that women with lower economic status were more likely to be single mothers. This suggests that economic factors may play a more complex role than simply increasing female independence leading to marital dissolution. The increased prevalence of single motherhood, particularly through premarital births, highlights the need for comprehensive interventions addressing sexual and reproductive health, including access to contraception and sex education. The study's finding of a negative association between higher wealth and single motherhood aligns with existing research suggesting that socioeconomic disparities contribute to single motherhood. The significant role of education and employment in reducing the likelihood of single motherhood underscores the importance of empowerment programs and educational opportunities for women. The impact of religious affiliation and regional variations points to the influence of cultural and societal factors on family structure and choices. Future research should explore these contextual factors further. The increasing age at first marriage may indirectly influence single motherhood rates, as it could lead to a longer period of premarital sexual activity increasing the risk of premarital childbirth.

This study provides valuable insights into the trends and predictors of single motherhood in Ghana, highlighting the growing prevalence of this family structure, primarily due to premarital births in recent years. Individual-level factors like age, education, occupation, and contraceptive use, alongside contextual factors like religion, region, and residence, all significantly influence single motherhood. The findings contradict the economic independence hypothesis, showing that poorer women are more likely to be single mothers. Policies and programs must focus on empowering single mothers and their children, addressing poverty, and improving well-being, contributing to the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 1, specifically target 1.2.

This study uses cross-sectional data, limiting the ability to establish causal relationships between variables. The dataset did not include information on factors such as attitudes toward single motherhood, sex education, and men's views on partnering with economically independent women. Future qualitative research could investigate these unmeasured factors to gain a richer understanding of single motherhood in Ghana. The reliance on self-reported data from the GDHS may be subject to recall bias or social desirability bias.