Rural-urban migration is a global phenomenon linked to various social and health outcomes, including mental health issues, pollution-related deaths, and depression. In China, the Hukou system, a household registration system, has historically regulated internal migration and access to social services. Since the 1980s, deregulation has led to a significant increase in rural-urban migration, particularly among first-generation RUMs (born before 1980) and new-generation RUMs (born in or after 1980). First-generation RUMs often work in low-skilled jobs and face disadvantages due to the rural-urban income gap. New-generation RUMs are more educated and skilled, with a stronger desire to settle in cities. However, both generations experience discrimination based on Hukou status, affecting their access to services and overall well-being. RUMs are largely concentrated in underprivileged urban neighborhoods with substandard housing conditions. Existing research highlights the lack of well-being support for RUMs from urban residents and the limited impact of institutional reforms on their well-being. This study addresses this gap by examining the factors contributing to SoC and RWB among Chinese RUMs, focusing on the interplay between socioeconomic factors, living conditions, and neighborhood conditions.

The literature review explores the push-pull paradigm of migration, emphasizing the role of subjective well-being (SWB) in migration decisions. It discusses the existing research on sense of community (SoC) and residential well-being (RWB), highlighting their definitions, influencing factors, and theoretical underpinnings. SoC is defined as an acknowledged interdependence with others and willingness to maintain it through reciprocal actions. Key components of SoC include membership, influence, integration and need fulfillment, and shared emotional connection. Studies have shown that SoC is linked to life satisfaction, social well-being, and community participation. Socioeconomic factors such as age, ethnicity, and income are also found to influence SoC in Western contexts. RWB, often linked to residential satisfaction, encompasses living arrangement satisfaction that enhances overall well-being. Research demonstrates its connection to psychological well-being and factors like social isolation and social connectedness. The literature reveals a significant gap in understanding the effects of living arrangements and neighborhood conditions on SoC and RWB among Chinese RUMs, particularly considering factors like endogeneity, simultaneity, confounding, multicollinearity, and heteroskedasticity.

This study utilizes data from the "Development of Migrant Villages under China's Rapid Urbanization" survey (DMVCRU), a face-to-face interview project conducted in 2010 in Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. The sample consists of 898 households from 15 migrant villages. SoC is measured using a 12-item scale assessing neighborhood and community perspectives, while RWB is measured using a 14-item scale focusing on housing and environmental status. Both scales use Likert-type responses (1-5). The normality of SoC and RWB scores is assessed using Shapiro-Wilk and Shapiro-Francia tests, confirming suitability for OLS regression analysis. The study includes socioeconomic factors (age, gender, marital status, education, Hukou status, income), living conditions (homeownership, number of bedrooms, living rooms, housing facilities), and neighborhood conditions (problem-solving channels, converted residences). Multiple linear regressions are used to analyze the independent effects of these variables on SoC and RWB scores. To account for potential heteroskedasticity, Breusch-Pagan/Cook-Weisberg test and Cameron and Trivedi's decomposition of IM-test are performed. Heteroskedastic linear regressions are conducted following variance function modeling. Instrumental-variable quantile treatment effects (IVQTE) are used to address the confounding effects of Hukou status and homeownership. OLS regression with suppressed constant terms analyzes the impact of living and neighborhood conditions on SoC and RWB in different homeownership scenarios. Simultaneous equation models are used to examine the reciprocal causality between SoC and RWB, employing three-stage least-squares (3SLS) estimation, seemingly unrelated regression (SUR), multivariate regression, and mixed-process regression to address endogeneity.

The sample consists mostly of middle-aged, married men, living in shared housing, with agricultural Hukou and subpar housing. Variance Inflation Factors (VIFs) were less than 1.80, indicating minimal multicollinearity. Heteroskedasticity was present in both regression equations, addressed using heteroskedastic linear regressions. IVQTE results indicated that Hukou status significantly impacts RWB scores but not SoC scores. Homeownership had no significant impact on either score. In OLS regressions, age and number of problem-solving channels positively correlated with both SoC and RWB. Gender, number of housing facilities, income, and number of living rooms also positively correlated in some cases. Homeownership positively correlated with both scores in the total sample. Three-stage least-squares analysis showed positive correlations for age, gender, educational attainment, number of living rooms, problem-solving channels, and converted residences in all samples. Number of living rooms negatively impacted both scores. Hukou status negatively influenced RWB scores across all samples. Simultaneous equation models confirmed the positive relationships and the negative effect of Hukou and number of living rooms. A moderate correlation (r>0.56) was found between SoC and RWB scores in all three models.

The findings highlight the complex interplay between socioeconomic factors, living conditions, and neighborhood conditions in shaping SoC and RWB among Chinese RUMs. The significant impact of Hukou status on RWB, but not SoC, suggests that institutional barriers significantly affect their overall residential experience. The positive correlation between SoC and RWB underscores the importance of fostering a sense of community to improve RUMs’ well-being. The study's results support previous findings linking sociodemographic factors like age, gender, income, and education to RUMs' well-being. The positive association with homeownership highlights the importance of housing security in enhancing both SoC and RWB. The negative association with the number of living rooms requires further investigation. This might reflect the limited space available in many RUMs’ housing arrangements, impacting both their sense of community and their residential satisfaction.

This study provides valuable insights into the factors influencing SoC and RWB among Chinese RUMs, revealing a moderately strong correlation between the two. Improved living conditions, better neighborhood infrastructure, and addressing institutional barriers like Hukou discrimination are crucial for enhancing the well-being of this population. Future research should utilize longitudinal data to establish causal relationships and incorporate a comparative analysis of RUMs, rural residents, and urban residents to better understand the unique experiences and challenges faced by RUMs. Further investigation into the impact of neighborhood environments on well-being is also warranted.

This cross-sectional study limits the ability to establish causal relationships between variables. Longitudinal data would be necessary to investigate the temporal dynamics of SoC and RWB and their relationships with the independent variables. The absence of a comparative group of rural residents and urban residents limits the study's capacity to disentangle the unique factors influencing RUMs' well-being compared to other groups in China. The study also lacked several neighborhood variables such as the environmental quality of the neighborhood.