This research investigates the relationship between economic growth, trade protectionism, and environmental degradation (measured by carbon emissions and ecological footprint) across 147 countries from 1995 to 2018. The study validates the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis, showing an inverted U-shaped relationship between economic growth and environmental degradation. Trade protectionism negatively impacts global environmental quality, with nuanced effects across income groups: mitigating degradation in high-income countries but exacerbating it in others, supporting the pollution haven hypothesis. The findings highlight the need for international cooperation to balance economic advancement with environmental preservation.
