Pedagogical competencies in minor subjects of Ghanaian pre-service geography teachers and their implications for teacher education

The study addresses growing concerns about the quality of teacher training and the need for professionally competent teachers to ensure equitable quality education (SDG 4). While teacher competence research often emphasizes major subjects and TPACK, little is known about pre-service teachers’ preparedness to teach their minor subjects—a common practice in Ghanaian secondary education. Drawing on Shulman’s conceptualization of pedagogical knowledge and the TPACK framework, the study conceptualizes pedagogical competence via three constructs: pedagogical knowledge (PK), pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), and technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK). The context is pre-service geography teachers at the University of Education, Winneba, who also study a minor (political science, social studies, history, or economics). The research questions were: (1) What is pre-service geography teachers’ pedagogical competence preparedness to teach their minor subjects? (2) How does pedagogical competence differ across minor subject groupings? The purpose is to inform teacher education curricula to better prepare teachers for potential out-of-field teaching and enhance instructional effectiveness in minor subjects.

Minor subject selection is common in teacher education internationally and in Ghana, intended to broaden job prospects and foster multidisciplinary knowledge. Prior studies indicate motivations for minor selection include job market considerations and subject connectedness, but also report limited student interest in minors and disproportionate attention to majors (Havia et al., 2022; Winzker, 2010; Saukkonen et al., 2013). Research on teacher competencies frequently uses TPACK to assess knowledge in major subjects, with fewer studies examining competence in minor subjects. The TPACK framework extends Shulman’s work by integrating content, pedagogy, and technology into seven knowledge domains; three pedagogy-related constructs (PK, PCK, TPK) are pertinent to general pedagogical competence. Existing literature also highlights the issue of out-of-field teaching and its negative impact on learning outcomes (Ingersoll, 2019; Kwakye Apau, 2022). This study adapts TPACK to operationalize pedagogical competence in minor subjects and addresses a gap by focusing on pre-service teachers’ self-reported PK, PCK, and TPK in minors.

Design: Cross-sectional survey. Participants: 182 of 369 (49.32%) final-year (Level 400) pre-service geography teachers at the University of Education, Winneba, Ghana, who also studied a minor in political science, social studies, history, or economics. Data collection: Online survey administered during internship (off-campus teaching practice) via a student social media platform over 3 months with reminders. Demographics: 77% male (n=140), 23% female (n=42); ages 20–29: 89% (n=162), 30–39: 11% (n=20); minor subjects: political science 45% (n=82), social studies 33% (n=60), economics 14% (n=24), history 9% (n=16). Instrument: Questionnaire adapted from Su et al. (2017) to measure three TPACK-related constructs considered as pedagogical competence—PK, PCK, TPK. Five-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree). Reliability: Cronbach’s alpha for constructs ranged 0.75–0.91, exceeding the 0.70 threshold. Interpretation of means: 4.1–5.0=adequate knowledge, 3.1–4.0=fair, 2.1–3.0=low, 1.1–2.1=extremely low. Analysis: Descriptive statistics (weighted means, SD). One-way MANOVA comparing PK, PCK, TPK across minor groups. Assumption checks: Shapiro–Wilk indicated univariate normality (p>0.05 across groups); Mahalanobis distances <16.27 (no multivariate outliers); boxplots showed no univariate outliers; scatterplots supported linearity; Box’s M p=0.912 (homogeneity of variance–covariance matrices met); Pearson correlations r=0.73, n=182, p<0.001 (no multicollinearity concerns). Alpha=0.05; Bonferroni-adjusted alpha for univariate follow-ups=0.02.

- Pedagogical knowledge (PK): Overall mean approximately 4.29 (adequate knowledge). Highest-rated item: guiding students to discuss subject topics effectively in group activities (M=4.47, SD=0.89). Lowest-rated PK item: designing challenging tasks to facilitate students’ thinking (item mean lower among PK items). Results indicate strong familiarity with instructional methods, lesson planning, assessment, and classroom management in minor subjects. - Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK): Average mean 4.07 (borderline adequate/fair), lower than PK. Highest item: producing lesson plans with good understanding of the topic in the minor subject; appropriate evaluation tool selection also adequate. Lowest items: breaking down teaching objectives of each content area (M=3.93, SD=0.95) and guiding students in theme-based enquiry activities (M=3.98, SD=0.98). - Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK/PTK): Average mean 4.07 (adequate but lower than PK). Highest items: using information technologies to enhance students’ enthusiasm (M=4.25, SD=0.86) and to engage students in active participation (M=4.20, SD=0.92). Lowest items: viewing use of IT from a critical perspective (M=3.95, SD=0.96) and adaptively using IT across teaching activities (M=3.90, SD=0.98). - MANOVA: Significant multivariate effect of minor subject on pedagogical competence variables: Wilks’ λ=0.861, F(9, 428.49)=3.022, p=0.002, partial η²=0.049 (Pillai’s trace, Hotelling’s trace, and Roy’s largest root also significant). Univariate tests (Bonferroni-adjusted α=0.02): minor subject significantly affected PK, F(3,178)=3.719, p=0.013, partial η²=0.059, with higher PK scores in the economics minor (M=36.58, SD=5.38) than history (M=31.13, SD=6.08), political science (M=34.00, SD=5.43), and social studies (M=34.34, SD=4.66). No significant effects for PCK, F(3,178)=1.017, p=0.387, partial η²=0.017, or TPK, F(3,178)=1.811, p=0.147, partial η²=0.030.

Findings show pre-service geography teachers report strong general pedagogical knowledge for teaching their minor subjects, addressing the first research question by indicating preparedness in selecting instructional strategies, planning lessons, managing classrooms, and assessing learning. However, their comparatively lower PCK and TPK suggest limitations in applying content-specific pedagogies and integrating technology purposefully within minor-subject instruction. This aligns with broader concerns that despite ICT investments, pedagogic use of technology remains underrealized. Regarding differences across minor subjects, results address the second question by demonstrating that minor subject choice predicts PK (economics minors outperforming others), while it does not significantly predict PCK or TPK—likely reflecting the greater complexity and subject-specific nature of PCK and TPK that are less transferable across domains. The findings imply that teacher education programs should provide targeted, subject-specific pedagogical and technology integration training in minor subjects, potentially guiding students’ minor selection and curriculum structuring to improve holistic competence and mitigate out-of-field teaching challenges.

The study assessed pre-service geography teachers’ pedagogical competence to teach their minor subjects (political science, history, economics, social studies) using PK, PCK, and TPK from the TPACK framework. Teachers exhibited high PK and are likely able to apply general instructional strategies in their minor subjects. In contrast, confidence in PCK and TPK was relatively lower, indicating potential challenges in applying content-specific methods and selecting appropriate technologies for minor-subject teaching. Minor subject type predicted PK but not PCK or TPK. The study recommends including subject-specific didactics/methodology courses and practice teaching observations in minor subjects to strengthen content-focused pedagogy and technology integration.

The study relies on self-reported measures, which can involve subjective interpretation and potential overestimation of competence (e.g., Dunning–Kruger effect). Generalizability may be limited due to contextual differences in teacher education policies and curricula. Future research should incorporate observational assessments of teaching in real classroom contexts to validate and extend findings.