Internet usage, access, and supervision among Ghanaian children: a cross-sectional study

Over the last two decades, there has been a significant rise in the use of electronic, computer-based communication and information exchange over the Internet, particularly among young people. While Internet use promises numerous positive effects, global disparities persist: UNICEF (2020) reports 1.3 billion school-aged children lacking home Internet access, with particularly low access in West and Central Africa. In Ghana, UNICEF (2018) found all surveyed children had used the Internet within three months. Internet benefits include education, research, social interaction, and improved health and academic outcomes. However, risks such as cyberbullying, grooming, sexting, exposure to dangerous materials, problematic Internet use, and addiction are documented. In Ghana, monitoring children's online activity is more effective in schools and Internet cafés than at home, where parents often lack measures or technical know-how to supervise. Existing Ghanaian studies are limited, often non-representative and focused on school-going youth, with few examining risks or using nationally representative data. This study addresses these gaps by examining prevalence of Internet use, modes of access, and supervision among children aged 8–17 using nationally representative data, answering: (a) What is the prevalence of Internet use? (b) How do children access the Internet? (c) How are children supervised while using the Internet?

Prior research in Ghana has largely focused on school-going youth and is often not nationally representative (e.g., Ameyaw & Asante, 2016; Amponsah, 2022; Annor-Frempong & Edumadze, 2009; Ayebi-Arthur et al., 2009; Buami, 2013; Kwaah et al., 2021; Kyei-Arthur & Aidoo, 2022). Studies specifically on children are limited (Njagi, 2023; Quarshie, 2012, 2013; UNICEF, 2018), with only a few addressing risks such as cyberbullying and exposure to harmful content (Njagi, 2023; UNICEF, 2018). UNICEF (2018) provides a national snapshot but uses a different prevalence reference period. Global literature highlights both benefits and risks of children's Internet use, and challenges in parental mediation, especially in developing contexts (Livingstone & Byrne, 2017; Smahel et al., 2020). The present study fills a gap by using nationally representative data to examine Internet use, access, and supervision among Ghanaian children aged 8–17.

Design and setting: Cross-sectional analysis using secondary quantitative and qualitative data collected by Ghana’s Ministry of Gender, Children, and Social Protection (MoGCSP) in 2018 across Ghana’s then 10 administrative regions. Sampling and participants: Multi-stage sampling selected 20% of districts per region based on child protection concerns (43 districts). From each district, 15 enumeration areas were sampled; children aged 8–17 in selected households were interviewed using probability proportional to size. Quantitative sample: n=5024 children (8–17 years). Qualitative component: ten focus group discussions (FGDs) with children (8–10 participants per group; total n=92; convenience selection of one community per region) and 50 key informant interviews (KIIs) with district staff and government agencies. Ethics: Approved by the National Child Protection Committee of MoGCSP; participation voluntary with informed consent from children (8–17), key informants, and parents/guardians. Anonymity assured. Measures: Internet-related variables: ever used Internet (Yes/No); mode of access (smartphone, laptop/computer, tablet, Internet café); supervision during Internet use (Yes/No). Socio-demographics: sex (male/female), age groups (8–10, 11–13, 14–17), education (not in school, primary, JHS, SHS/Voc/Tech/Commercial, tertiary), religion (Christianity, Islam, African Traditionalist, no religion), region (10 regions). Data collection and quality: Thirty trained interviewers collected data April–October 2018. FGDs and KIIs were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Analysis: Quantitative analysis in SPSS v26. Descriptives (frequencies, percentages); chi-square tests assessed associations between Internet usage/access/supervision and socio-demographics (p<0.05). Factor analysis (varimax rotation; eigenvalue>1 criterion) explored underlying dimensions among variables (region, sex, education, age, supervised Internet use, Internet access, messaging/chatting, schoolwork, downloading music/video, research, frequency of computer use, computer use in past 12 months). Qualitative analysis used constant comparison in NVivo v10: iterative coding of transcripts, grouping codes into themes; qualitative and quantitative findings were compared.

• Sample characteristics: 5024 children; 51.1% male; 43.7% aged 14–17; 42.1% in primary school; 75.1% Christian; largest regional share Brong Ahafo (14.7%).
• Prevalence of Internet use: 90.5% had ever used the Internet. No significant association with sex (p=0.802), age (p=0.449), education (p=0.715), religion (p=0.801), or region (p=0.739).
• Access modes: Smartphone 45.7%; Internet café 21.7%; laptop/computer 21.6%; tablet 11.0%. No sex differences in access (p=0.946). Older children (14–17) had higher proportions across access modes, but age-access association not significant (p=0.935). Qualitative data confirmed smartphones as primary access; noted reliance on relatives’ phones and cafés when lacking personal devices.
• Uses of Internet: Browsing/surfing/social media 90.5%; messaging/chatting 89.9%; schoolwork 87.9%; playing games 87.0%; downloading music/videos 85.2%; research 77.5%. Significant sex differences favored males for downloading music/videos (87.3% vs 83.0%; p<0.001), research (81.7% vs 73.1%; p<0.001), and playing games (88.3% vs 85.5%; p=0.003).
• Supervision: 43.3% supervised vs 56.7% unsupervised when using the Internet. No significant differences by sex (p=0.650), age (p=0.272), education (p=0.954), or region (p=0.510). Significant association with religion (p=0.022): higher unsupervised among African Traditionalists (68.1%), Muslims (58.7%), Christians (56.0%); children with no religion had the highest supervised share (53.2%).
• Qualitative themes on supervision: Predominant lack of or minimal parental supervision at home due to parents’ own device use and limited technical know-how; children can outwit parents. Schools and Internet cafés reported active supervision (restricting non-school activities, filtering/blocking explicit content, staff monitoring).
• Perceived consequences of inadequate supervision: Misbehavior and online fraud (impersonation, extortion); exposure to violent content; addiction to social media/screen time.
• Factor analysis and correlations: Reliability (Cronbach’s alpha)=0.78; KMO=0.57; Bartlett’s test=1363, p<0.001. Six factors explained 69.36% variance: (1) age and educational level; (2) learning and entertainment (schoolwork, downloading, research); (3) location and social life (region, chatting); (4) sex; (5) accessibility and usage of computers (frequency, use in past 12 months); (6) supervision and Internet usage (supervision, how Internet is accessed).

The study finds high Internet exposure among Ghanaian children (90.5%), lower than UNICEF’s 2018 national estimate (100%) but higher than earlier Accra-based estimates (63%). Differences likely reflect sampling frames and measurement periods. Despite high prevalence, policy efforts (e.g., Girl-In-ICT) should continue to increase equitable access, particularly for girls, as males show higher engagement in some activities. Smartphones are the dominant access point due to affordability, reliability, and limited household computer ownership, aligning with global patterns of youth smartphone use. Children primarily use the Internet for social media and entertainment; educational uses (e.g., research) are less frequent, underscoring the need for digital education promoting academic applications. Supervision is insufficient at home: parents are often time-constrained and lack technical skills, while schools and cafés implement monitoring and filtering. Factor analysis suggests Internet usage is shaped by age/education, learning-entertainment orientation, location/social life, sex, computer accessibility/usage, and supervision/access mode. As children age, supervision tends to decrease, yet risks such as exposure to inappropriate content, excessive screen time, and problematic behaviors remain; thus, parental guidance and digital literacy training are needed. Enhancing parental mediation—without infringing on children’s rights—can mitigate harms while enabling benefits.

Ninety percent of Ghanaian children aged 8–17 have used the Internet. Smartphones and Internet cafés are key access points, and children use the Internet for both educational and non-educational activities. Most children report little to no supervision during Internet use, particularly at home. Public education should target both children and parents: teach children about benefits and risks of Internet use and equip parents with technical skills to supervise effectively. Strengthening parental digital literacy and expanding equitable initiatives can help maximize benefits while minimizing harms associated with excessive or unsupervised use.

• Cross-sectional design limits causal inference between variables.
• Self-reported measures may be subject to recall and social desirability bias.
• Qualitative FGDs were convenience-based in one community per region and capture experiences rather than representative views. Despite these, the study leverages nationally representative quantitative data to examine prevalence, access, and supervision of Internet use among Ghanaian children aged 8–17.