Honey-collecting in prehistoric West Africa from 3500 years ago

Honey, a valuable source of sweetness and nutrients, has likely been a sought-after foodstuff throughout much of human history. Its high caloric density, digestibility, and nutritional content—rich in energy, fats, and proteins—suggest a significant role in hominin evolution, potentially contributing to brain development. Observations of chimpanzees and other primates foraging for honey further support its importance in primate dietary habits and tool use development. While current global honey production is substantial, archaeological evidence of ancient honey exploitation is scarce, limited mostly to rock art depictions. Recent lipid analysis of prehistoric pottery in Europe and the Near East has revealed beeswax residues, dating back to the 7th millennium BC, but evidence from other regions, especially sub-Saharan Africa, has been lacking despite historical and ethnographic accounts of honey's importance in African cultures. West Africa, encompassing diverse ecological zones and a complex archaeological record, offers an ideal setting to investigate the role of honey in the diets of early farmers and foragers. The Nok culture of central Nigeria, known for its terracotta figurines and evidence of early iron production, represents a key period for this investigation. The authors of this study examine lipid residues from Nok pottery to explore dietary and subsistence patterns and gather direct evidence of honeybee exploitation.

Existing literature highlights the significance of honey and bee products throughout human history and across various cultures. Studies on chimpanzee behavior illustrate honey's importance in primate diets and complex tool use. Ethnographic evidence from Africa extensively documents the use of honey and other bee products as food and in the production of beverages, both alcoholic and non-alcoholic. Prior research employing lipid residue analysis on prehistoric pottery has successfully identified beeswax in Neolithic Europe, the Near East, and Mediterranean North Africa, indicating bee exploitation dating back to the seventh millennium BC. However, information regarding the role of bee products in West African subsistence strategies remains limited. This study aims to bridge this gap by investigating the Nok culture, a significant prehistoric culture in West Africa, and its interaction with honeybees.

The study analyzed 458 potsherds from 12 Nok archaeological sites in central Nigeria, representing the Early, Middle, and Late Nok periods. Established lipid residue analysis protocols, described in detail in previous publications, were employed. The process involved crushing potsherds, adding an internal standard (*n*-tetratriacontane), and extracting lipids using acidified methanol. The extracts underwent esterification/transesterification, centrifugation, and extraction with dichloromethane and *n*-hexane. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was used to analyze the extracted lipids. Further analysis, using solvent extraction (chloroform/methanol), followed by silica column filtration and trimethylsilylation, was performed on selected samples to identify higher molecular weight compounds such as wax esters and hydroxy wax esters. High-temperature gas chromatography (HTGC) and HTGC-MS were employed for these analyses. Compound identification was based on mass spectra and GC retention times, compared against the NIST mass spectral library and modern beeswax samples. Blanks were included in each analytical batch to control for contamination. The data were analyzed to identify the presence of beeswax and other lipids present in the pots, offering insights into the dietary and subsistence habits of the Nok people.

Lipid biomarker analysis by GC/MS identified three broad categories of lipid profiles in the Nok residues: 1) those dominated by free fatty acids (palmitic and stearic acids), indicative of degraded animal fat; 2) complex distributions suggesting processing of various plant types; and 3) distinctive series of even-numbered *n*-alkanoic acids, *n*-alkanols, and *n*-alkanes, strongly suggestive of beeswax. The presence of beeswax was confirmed in 25 samples through the identification of higher molecular weight compounds such as wax esters and hydroxy wax esters, unambiguously confirming the presence of beeswax. The beeswax-containing vessels spanned the Early, Middle, and Later Middle Nok periods, demonstrating consistent bee exploitation throughout this culture. The proportion of beeswax residues was highest in Early Nok pottery (55%), decreasing slightly in the later periods. High lipid concentrations in some vessels suggested use in cooking or heating honey, possibly as a food additive or for preservation. One vessel showed evidence of both beeswax and animal products, indicating potential mixing of these ingredients. The absence of beeswax biomarkers in later (Common Era) sherds might suggest a change in food processing practices or less favorable lipid preservation conditions. The findings provide direct chemical evidence of beeswax, strongly suggesting honey collection and processing within the Nok culture.

The presence of beeswax in a significant proportion of Nok pottery vessels offers compelling evidence for the exploitation of honeybees and the processing of their products, primarily honey, in prehistoric West Africa. This adds crucial information to our understanding of early farming communities and their subsistence strategies. The identified lipid profiles are consistent with the processing of beeswax through melting, indicating the purposeful extraction of honey. The presence of both animal fats and beeswax in some vessels suggests potential practices such as preserving meat in honey. The substantial amount of beeswax found indicates honey's importance as a food source. The relative decline of beeswax residues in later Nok periods requires further investigation to understand potential socio-economic and/or ecological shifts. The data support a long history of human interaction with honeybees in West Africa, potentially exceeding the timeframe of the Nok culture. Further research, specifically lipid residue analysis of earlier pottery, is recommended to fully explore the antiquity of this practice.

This study presents the first direct chemical evidence for the exploitation of honeybees and the processing of bee products, notably honey, in prehistoric West Africa, dating back approximately 3500 years. The findings demonstrate the significant role of honey in the diet and subsistence of the Nok culture. The study's results emphasize the importance of incorporating multiple lines of evidence—ethnographic data and lipid analysis—in understanding the complexities of past human behavior and subsistence. Future research focusing on earlier pottery from West Africa could further illuminate the long-term history of honey exploitation in the region.

The study's findings are based on a sample of pottery sherds, which may not fully represent the entire range of Nok pottery. The absence of beeswax in the Common Era sherds might be attributed to factors other than changes in subsistence practices, such as differences in preservation conditions. The study does not definitively establish whether the Nok people actively managed beehives or solely harvested wild honey, although the high concentration of beeswax suggests some level of processing activity. Further investigation may be needed to definitively confirm these aspects.