The increasing prevalence of digital devices is leading to a decline in handwriting, raising concerns about its potential impact on cognitive development. While keyboarding is often promoted for its ease of use, particularly for young children, research suggests that handwriting enhances spelling accuracy, memory, recall, letter recognition, and overall comprehension. This study explores the neurobiological underpinnings of this difference. Neuroscience increasingly emphasizes the brain's dynamic functional connectivity, with multiple brain systems collaborating flexibly for specific tasks. Electroencephalography (EEG), particularly high-density EEG, is well-suited to investigate these dynamic networks at a millisecond scale, providing insights into the spatial patterns of activation during different cognitive activities. Cortical oscillations, measured as event-related synchronization (ERS) and desynchronization (ERD), provide a window into distinct cognitive processes. Previous research from the authors' lab has shown increased brain activity during drawing compared to typing, suggesting that intricate hand movements in note-taking may be advantageous for learning. This study builds on these findings by examining the functional connectivity differences between handwriting and typewriting in young adults.

The literature review highlights the progressive replacement of handwriting with digital devices in education and its implications for learning. Studies show handwriting improves spelling, memory, and recall, and enhances letter recognition and comprehension, regardless of whether traditional pen and paper or digital pens are used. However, it's not simply motor activity that matters; accurately coordinating complex hand movements in shaping letters is crucial. The dynamic and flexible nature of brain organization, described as functional connectivity, contrasts with the more static view of localized neural processes. High-density EEG studies allow for the investigation of these dynamic networks and their role in cognitive tasks. Cortical oscillations, and their interplay of ERS and ERD in various frequency bands (theta, alpha, gamma), reflect different cognitive processes. The authors cite previous EEG studies showing more widespread brain activity and larger areas of involvement during handwriting than typewriting, suggesting potential advantages for learning.

This study involved 36 right-handed university students (18-29 years old). Participants were presented with 15 Pictionary words on a Microsoft Surface Studio and instructed to either write each word in cursive with a digital pen or type it on a keyboard. Each word was presented twice, in randomized order, resulting in 30 trials. EEG data were recorded using a 256-channel Geodesic Sensor Net (GSN) at 500 Hz for the first 5 s of each trial. Data analysis was performed using BESA software (versions 7.0 and 1.0 for connectivity analysis). Pre-processing steps included artifact correction using manual and semi-automatic methods. A time-frequency analysis in brain space was conducted, focusing on source montages to separate brain activities. Brain connectivity was measured using coherence, resulting in a functional connectivity matrix that was visualized and analyzed using network measures. Statistical analyses employed permutation tests and data clustering (within-group ANOVAs) to compare connectivity patterns between handwriting and typewriting conditions, using Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. The alpha level for cluster formation was set at 0.01, with 10,000 permutations.

High-density EEG recordings during handwriting and typewriting revealed significantly increased connectivity during handwriting compared to typewriting. This difference was especially prominent in the theta (3.5-7.5 Hz) and alpha (8-12.5 Hz) frequency bands within parietal and central brain regions. The grand average coherence results showed more extensive and stronger positive coherence patterns (red contours) in these frequency ranges for handwriting, lasting from 1000 to 2000 ms and throughout the trial. Connectivity matrix analysis showed widespread theta/alpha coherence between parietal (left, midline, right) and central (left, midline, right) regions during handwriting, but not during typewriting. This resulted in a concentration of 32 significant clusters, representing 16 connections, for handwriting, but significantly fewer for typewriting. Permutation test results confirmed the statistical significance of these differences, with numerous clusters showing p-values well below 0.05. Network analysis revealed that during handwriting, proposed hubs (≥4 departures/arrivals) in parietal and central regions demonstrated widespread theta/alpha connectivity patterns indicating stronger inter-regional communication compared to typewriting.

The findings support the hypothesis that handwriting elicits different and more extensive brain connectivity patterns than typewriting. The increased connectivity in the theta/alpha range, observed only during handwriting, suggests distinct neural networks are involved in these tasks. Theta connectivity has been linked to working memory and processing of new information, while alpha connectivity is associated with long-term memory. The enhanced connectivity may be attributed to the precise sensorimotor processes inherent to handwriting, including visual, motor command, and proprioceptive feedback, which are lacking in the simpler key press of typing. The results align with previous findings linking theta oscillations to hippocampal activity and memory formation. The low-frequency (theta) connections seem to support integration of information during memory formation, potentially 'gating' faster oscillations, a mechanism found to be essential to cognition. These results demonstrate a low-frequency mechanism for interregional communication supporting information integration during memory formation.

This study demonstrates that handwriting, unlike typewriting, leads to widespread brain connectivity, particularly within theta/alpha frequency bands in parietal and central brain regions associated with learning and memory. The enhanced connectivity likely arises from the complex sensorimotor integration involved in handwriting. These findings underscore the importance of maintaining handwriting practice in educational settings. Future research could investigate the long-term cognitive benefits of handwriting across different age groups and learning contexts, and explore the optimal balance between handwriting and digital technologies in education.

The study used a relatively small sample of university students, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations, such as children or individuals with different writing skills. The use of a digital pen on a touchscreen may not perfectly replicate the experience of handwriting with traditional pen and paper. Future research could address these limitations by using larger, more diverse samples and comparing digital handwriting to traditional handwriting.