The UN Agenda 2030 and African Union's Agenda 2063 highlight science's crucial role in sustainable development. However, significant science inequalities exist between the Global North and South, hindering the potential of science to drive transformative change. This paper addresses two key challenges: strengthening science-society-policy interactions and tackling science inequalities. Transdisciplinary research (TDR), which integrates scientific knowledge production with societal problem-solving, is increasingly recognized as a valuable approach. The design of research funding programmes plays a significant role in shaping TDR practices and addressing capacity-building needs. This article examines how the Leading Integrated Research for the Agenda 2030 in Africa (LIRA 2030 Africa) programme fosters TDR for sustainable development in the Global South, focusing on the benefits and challenges of its pathways and activities.

Existing literature emphasizes the need for TDR to address complex sustainability challenges but highlights that traditional disciplinary research approaches are insufficient. TDR requires specific conditions differing from disciplinary research, including time, collaborative skills, resources, review processes, and career incentives. Studies show that TDR proposals face funding challenges due to disciplinary-based funding instruments and review criteria. The limited valuation of societal contributions in traditional academic metrics further hinders TDR careers. While some funding bodies have developed programmes to promote TDR, evidence on their effectiveness, particularly in the Global South, is limited. Previous research has identified areas of influence in funding programmes crucial for successful TDR, including solicitation conditions, proposal review, funding coverage, capacity building, implementation support, and evaluation and learning. A model by Schneider et al. (2019) highlights ten key stages in a research funding programme's lifecycle that require special consideration to foster TDR.

This research employs a learning study approach embedded within the LIRA 2030 Africa programme. A core team comprising TDR experts and programme managers (from Africa and Europe) used a reflexive model of science, combining social science methods with self-reflection. This contrasts with traditional programme evaluation by independent researchers, offering the advantage of combining rigorous analysis with practitioners' knowledge. Data collection methods included interviews, surveys, document review, and participatory observation. Qualitative content analysis was used to understand the programme's pathways and activities, and descriptive statistics analyzed data from participatory observation, evaluations, monitoring reports, and a grantee survey. The ten key stages of a TDR funding programme model were applied to structure the analysis of benefits and challenges. The LIRA programme launched three calls, funding 28 research projects across 22 African countries, each involving cities in two countries to foster learning and cross-institutional collaboration.

The study identified three interconnected pathways to foster TDR in Africa through the LIRA programme: **Pathway 1: Enabling African early-career scientists to lead high-quality TDR projects.** This pathway focused on providing funding and capacity building. The programme combined research grants with capacity-building activities covering all phases of TDR. A two-step application process with a TDR training course between pre-proposals and full proposals proved highly effective. The training enhanced understanding of TDR, improved proposal writing skills, and boosted confidence in stakeholder engagement. Challenges included high expectations regarding impacts, insufficient time between training and full proposals, and the short two-year grant duration. Institutional bureaucracies and high teaching loads also impacted implementation. **Pathway 2: Supporting African early-career scientists to pursue a career as TDR researchers.** This pathway aimed to support long-term career development. The programme provided information on career opportunities, leadership training, network-building activities (including annual research fora and cross-project grants), and visibility-enhancing opportunities (such as international conference participation). Grantees reported benefits such as enhanced skills, leadership experience, self-confidence, recognition, and international networks. However, challenges remained in establishing independent TDR careers at home institutions, and the intended institutional mentorship was sometimes hampered by senior researchers' limited TDR experience. **Pathway 3: Enhancing context conditions within which TDR researchers operate.** This pathway focused on creating a supportive institutional environment. The programme fostered synthesis and communication of TDR experiences, promoted TDR capacity building at research institutions, and engaged with global research funders. Benefits included increased awareness and recognition of TDR in African and international institutions. Challenges included the persistence of institutional policies unfavourable to TDR, highlighting the need for long-term collaborative action from scientists, universities, and funders.

The findings demonstrate the importance of a multifaceted approach to foster TDR in Africa, integrating funding, capacity building, and institutional support. The LIRA programme's capacity-building efforts, particularly the two-step application process and subsequent training, are highly innovative. The study highlights the need to cover the entire TDR value chain, focusing on actionable knowledge, learning-by-doing, and self-reflection. While challenges increased with the ambition of each pathway, the combination of all three proved crucial for long-term success. The findings align with studies emphasizing the need for both individual researcher capacity building and institutional-level interventions in African science systems. The pathways identified might also be applicable in other contexts, given the widespread lack of TDR competences in university curricula and unfavourable conditions for TDR careers.

The LIRA 2030 Africa programme offers a valuable prototype for future TDR funding programmes. The integrated approach of combining funding, capacity building, and career development, is crucial for nurturing African leadership in TDR. Further research is needed to develop effective strategies for transforming the context conditions that support TDR. Systematic learning processes are essential for adapting and improving such innovative funding programmes.

The study's findings are based on a single case study, limiting generalizability. The data collected primarily represents the perspectives of grantees and programme representatives; perspectives beyond these sources were not included. Confidentiality concerns prevented the public release of certain data, such as interview transcripts and programme documents.