Ethnic Discrimination in European Amateur Football: A Field Experiment

Contemporary societies are increasingly diverse, yet this diversity doesn't always translate to greater tolerance. Research consistently demonstrates ethnic and racial discrimination across various social domains, including employment, housing, and the sharing economy. While studies often focus on areas with direct economic impact, discrimination extends to other social activities, impacting social network formation and integration. Granovetter's (1973) concept of the strength of weak ties emphasizes the importance of casual social interactions in building broader networks crucial for accessing resources and opportunities. However, participation requires reciprocity – both willingness from minority groups to engage and acceptance from majority groups. Existing research quantifying inter-group interactions often relies on self-reported data or indirect measures, prone to biases. This study addresses these limitations using a field experiment to measure ethnic discrimination directly within the context of European amateur football. Amateur sports are considered integration tools, promoting interaction between individuals of diverse ethnic backgrounds. However, ethnic minorities are underrepresented in sports, often attributed to self-segregation preferences. This study argues that while self-segregation may play a role, discriminatory practices within the system also contribute. Existing research frequently uses qualitative methods, hindering the ability to distinguish between exclusion and preference. This study aims to address this gap by using a field experiment to objectively measure the actions of native members in responding to applications from individuals with different-sounding names, thereby directly assessing the prevalence of discrimination.

Existing research extensively documents ethnic and racial discrimination in various social contexts, including employment (Bertrand and Mullainathan, 2004; Pager et al., 2009), housing (Diehl et al., 2013; Auspurg et al., 2019), and even online dating (Jakobsson and Lindholm, 2014). Studies emphasize the negative consequences of discrimination on social networks and access to resources (Granovetter, 1973; McQuaid and Lindsay, 2005; van Eijk, 2010). While amateur sports are promoted as an integration tool (Council of the European Union, 2010, 2020), literature shows ethnic minority underrepresentation, often explained by self-segregation (Elling and Knoppers, 2005; Peucker and Ceylan, 2017). However, researchers also point to discriminatory practices within sports organizations (Collins, 2014), though the lack of quantitative data prevents a clear understanding of the relative contributions of self-segregation versus collective exclusion.

This study employs a multi-country field experiment to assess ethnic discrimination in European amateur football. The researchers selected 22 European countries with sufficient amateur football clubs for analysis. They used mock email accounts with either native- or foreign-sounding names to contact clubs, inquiring about joining. The sample size varied across countries, with a total of 23,020 emails sent (5,729 with native-sounding names and 4,486 with foreign-sounding names). Responses were categorized as: (1) no response/rejection; (2) positive response (invitation to practice); and (3) positive response with inquiries. Positive responses were combined for analysis, resulting in a binary dependent variable (positive/negative response). The researchers performed statistical analyses, including Mann-Whitney U tests and regression analyses (OLS with robust standard errors clustered at the country level) to assess the difference in response rates between native- and foreign-sounding names, controlling for net migration, population size, and league level.

The overall response rate was approximately 44%. Pooled results across all countries showed that foreign-sounding names received significantly fewer responses than native-sounding names (0.391 vs. 0.495; ATE = 0.102, p=0.00). Response rates varied across countries, with the Netherlands having the highest (foreign = 64.5%, native = 74.3%) and Serbia the lowest (foreign = 9.3%, native = 15.1%). Every country showed a lower response rate for foreign-sounding names. The difference in response rates between native- and foreign-sounding names also varied across countries, ranging from less than 4% (Ireland, France, Portugal) to over 20% (Croatia, Hungary, Austria). Regression analyses, controlling for net migration and population size, consistently indicated that foreign-sounding names received approximately 10-11% fewer responses.

The findings demonstrate significant ethnic discrimination against individuals with foreign-sounding names in European amateur football, challenging the ideal of equal access in sport. The results support the argument for collective exclusion mechanisms, alongside potential cultural preferences, in hindering the integration of ethnic minorities. The field experiment approach extends prior qualitative studies, providing robust quantitative evidence of discrimination. This discrimination has broader implications, affecting access to social networks and potential opportunities in local communities, thereby impacting social and economic mobility.

This study provides strong evidence of ethnic discrimination in European amateur football, challenging the assumption of equal opportunity in sports. The findings highlight the need for interventions to address these biases and promote inclusive participation. Future research could explore the role of cultural distance, national hierarchies, and religion in shaping discriminatory behaviors, as well as test interventions aimed at reducing these biases.

The study's design, while robust, has some limitations. The multi-country nature of the experiment restricts detailed analysis of specific mechanisms driving discrimination, such as cultural distance or national hierarchies. The focus on football also limits generalizability to other sports or social activities. The reliance on names as a proxy for ethnicity might not capture the full complexity of ethnic identity and experience. Finally, the study does not examine demographic factors like gender in detail due to the limited number of women's clubs included.