Disinformation on the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russia-Ukraine War: Two sides of the same coin?

Recently, Europe has been embroiled in serious disinformation crises. In 2020, the WHO declared the term "infodemic" due to the massive increase in hoaxes about the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022, Russia's invasion of Ukraine was dubbed the first digital world war. In this context, this research aims to establish similarities and differences between disinformation disseminated in Europe related to the pandemic during 2020-2021 and the war between Russia and Ukraine throughout 2022-2023. The methodology is based on triangulation, combining quantitative content analysis of fact-checking publications (N = 812) from eight fact-checkers representing four European countries (Spain, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Poland) and qualitative interviews with specialized agents (N=8). Regarding the main findings, the frequency and nature of verified hoaxes during critical events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic and the Ukraine conflict, are closely intertwined with peaks in current events. Initially, both crises saw a surge in hoax verifications, but this trend gradually declined, particularly in the case of the Ukraine conflict. Hoaxes related to the pandemic were primarily disseminated in written form, whereas the complexities of the Russian-Ukraine war hindered widespread hoax dissemination in an audiovisual way. The typology of hoaxes correlated with their format, with fabricated content predominant in pandemic hoaxes and out-of-context images prevalent in those related to the conflict. Social media, notably Facebook and X (Twitter), emerged as the primary platforms for hoax dissemination, overshadowing traditional media channels. In both events, disinformation aimed to provoke emotional responses and polarize audiences, emphasizing the role of social networks in amplifying disinformation during crises.