Breaking the board: the rise of female Go players in Korea

Go is a globally popular strategic board game historically dominated by men, with women comprising less than 15–20% of the player base. Recent years have seen a notable rise of Korean female Go players, culminating in milestones such as Choi Jeong reaching the 2022 Samsung World Masters open finals. Using social representation theory as a lens, the study explores how changing societal beliefs about gender in the Go community may be shaping participation and success. The research addresses two questions: (1) How have representation, performance, and prize earnings of female Go players in Korea changed over time compared to China and Japan? (2) What are the social representations of female Go players in Korea? To answer these, the authors apply a mixed-method approach: descriptive analyses (demographics, Elo/WHR ratings, competition/prize data) across Korea, China, and Japan, and social representation analyses (in-depth interviews, thematic and core–periphery analyses, visualization). The goal is to identify socio-cultural and institutional factors underpinning women’s rising prominence in Korean professional Go and illuminate broader implications for gender equality in intellectual games.

Background: Professional Go institutions originated in Japan (Four Go Houses; Japanese Go Association, 1924) and later in Korea (1945) and China (1962). Women’s professional systems began post-WWII: Japan (1952), Korea (1975; revived 1990), China (1982). The 2010 Asian Games inclusion catalyzed women’s competitions and growth. Women in Go: Cho & Nam (2012) periodized Korean women’s Go development (1963–2010) into five phases from dawning to jumping, noting growth in participation, professionalization, and a breakthrough gold at the Guangzhou Asian Games. Limitations include reliance on a single magazine source and scope limited to Korea. Women in chess: Literature highlights barriers including access to resources, stereotypes, and socio-economic structures affecting participation and performance; mixed and inconclusive evidence on inherent cognitive differences. Findings suggest the need for comprehensive support to reduce disparities—insights transferable to Go. Social representation theory: Moscovici’s framework emphasizes shared societal beliefs with a core-periphery structure. Gendered representations can sustain disparities in sports and gaming. Addressing inequalities requires reshaping core narratives and adaptable peripheral elements to foster inclusivity.

Design: Mixed-methods. RQ1 (trends in representation, performance, and earnings) addressed via descriptive analyses across Korea, China, and Japan; RQ2 (social representations) addressed via qualitative analyses. Descriptive analyses:

• Demographic analysis: Identified 2,379 global professional players (1994–2023): Korea 456, China 925, Japan 772. Data sources: Go4Go (match records), official association databases for gender/nationality, supplemented by social media/news. Computed annual proportion of active female players (excluding players inactive ≥1 year) by country.
• Elo/WHR performance analysis: Used Whole-History Rating variant of Elo for 2,379 players with 27,419 yearly data points (1994–2023). Source: Go Ratings. Computed annual average Elo of active female players by country.
• Competition/prize analysis: Compiled national competitions active as of Aug 2023 from Korean, Japanese, and Chinese Go associations plus databases/media. Classified by participant category (Open vs. Women). Calculated number of competitions, average founding year, and total winning prize per country and category; excluded competitions not held in their organizing cycle. Social representation analyses:
• Data collection: In-depth, semi-structured interviews with nine players exploring experiences and perceptions of gender dynamics.
• Analysis: Thematic analysis using open, axial, and selective coding to derive topics; applied a core–periphery algorithm to estimate topic coreness and membership; visualized inter-topic relationships based on co-occurrence/similarity to map the social representation structure (core vs. peripheral themes). Ethical procedures included informed consent and anonymized handling of responses; study exempt from formal IRB under national regulations.

Descriptive trends:

• Representation and performance: Korea shows a clear and faster upward trend than China and Japan in the proportion of active female professionals and in average Elo/WHR ratings of active female players (1994–2023), indicating improving competitiveness.
• Competition and prize landscape (national competitions active as of Aug 2023): • Korea: Open 23 (avg founded 2012), total prize $688,210; Women 9 (avg founded 2017), total prize $192,345; Open–Women prize gap $495,865. • Japan: Open 16 (avg founded 1980), total prize $1,336,977; Women 6 (avg founded 2003), total prize $247,058; gap $1,089,919. • China: Open 17 (avg founded 1999), total prize $798,096; Women 2 (avg founded 2013), total prize $77,145; gap $720,951.
• Korea hosts more women’s competitions and exhibits the smallest Open–Women prize gap among the three countries, suggesting relatively greater financial equity and recent expansion of women’s events. Social representation structure (interviews, N=9):
• Twelve themes identified. Core topics (coreness > 0.40): Performance Disparity (0.622), Engagement (0.493), Infrastructure (0.422). Peripheral topics: Representation Disparity (0.261), Stereotypes and Bias (0.255), Training Opportunity (0.245), Playing Style (0.204), Physical Capability (0.111), Family Expectation (0.073), Financial Resources (0.046), Role Models (0.032), Fan and Sponsor (0.001).
• Representative narratives: Persistent beliefs that men are inherently better can discourage women; commitment and training load by women are high; access to quality coaching and facilities has improved but more competitions are needed; women’s tournaments are growing but prize money remains relatively low; family responsibilities affect engagement; misconceptions persist about women’s stamina; national team systems improved training access; role models (e.g., Rui Naiwei, top male players) motivate and guide development.
• Inter-topic links: Performance Disparity connects with Engagement, Infrastructure, Playing Style, Physical Capability; Engagement links to Family Expectation, Role Models, Stereotypes/Bias; Infrastructure links to Representation Disparity, Financial Resources, Training Opportunity; Financial Resources connects with Fans/Sponsors.

Findings for RQ1 indicate that Korea has experienced faster growth in both representation and performance of female professionals compared to China and Japan, supported by a richer and more recently established women’s competition ecosystem and a smaller prize money gap. These trends suggest systemic improvements in opportunities and incentives for women in Korea’s Go community. For RQ2, the core–periphery analysis shows Performance Disparity as the central concern, shaped by individual engagement and institutional infrastructure. Peripheral yet influential factors include stereotypes/biases, family expectations, physical capability perceptions, and the availability of training, resources, role models, and sponsorships. Together, these factors form a dynamic network that both constrains and enables women’s advancement. The discussion highlights that enhanced infrastructure (coaching, facilities, competitions) and engagement (time investment, dedication) are key levers to narrow performance gaps. Economic incentives and a supportive cultural climate, reinforced by visible role models (notably Rui Naiwei and elite male players studied as models), further catalyze progress. Korea’s relatively equitable prize environment and expansion of women’s events appear to be integral to the observed gains. The broader relevance extends to other male-dominated domains, aligning with evidence from chess: dismantling stereotypes, expanding opportunities and financial rewards, institutional backing, and promoting role models can collectively reshape social representations and improve gender equity.

Korean female Go professionals have advanced markedly in representation, performance, and recognition, aided by improved infrastructure, increased playing opportunities, stronger economic incentives, institutional initiatives, and shifting social and cultural narratives. Role models have been pivotal in challenging stereotypes and inspiring participation. Despite progress, challenges persist, including constrained prize pools in women’s events and difficulties sustaining a livelihood solely from professional play. Future research could: (1) quantify causal impacts of specific institutional policies (e.g., national team programs, tournament expansions) on women’s performance trajectories; (2) extend analyses beyond Korea–China–Japan to other regions and global circuits; (3) incorporate longitudinal microdata on training loads, coaching access, and career interruptions (e.g., caregiving) to model performance dynamics; and (4) examine how media coverage, sponsorship ecosystems, and fan engagement influence financial equity and retention of female professionals.

The study’s descriptive nature limits causal inference about drivers of improvement. Competition/prize analyses include only national competitions active as of August 2023 and exclude events not held within their original cycles, potentially understating available opportunities. Elo/WHR data and player activity rely on secondary databases (Go Ratings, Go4Go) and association records, which may contain classification or coverage biases. The interview component involves a small sample (N=9), which may limit generalizability and omit variation across age cohorts or career stages. Analyses focus on Korea, China, and Japan and may not reflect conditions in other Go-playing regions or international circuits.