Biancai (1011–1091) and his friends in the outside secular world: Longjing Monastery in the Northern Song (960–1127)

The study examines how renowned religious sites in China, while often rooted in mythic or numinous associations (e.g., Ge Hong and the dragon at Longjing), require sustained social, cultural, and political engagement to achieve enduring prominence. Focusing on Longjing Monastery in Hangzhou during the Northern Song, the paper argues that institutional success depended on capable abbots who cultivated elite patronage. It situates Longjing’s historical development from Sui and Five Dynasties antecedents to its Northern Song reestablishment as Shousheng Monastery and centers on Abbot Biancai (1011–1091). Biancai’s relationships with leading literati and officials—Su Shi, Su Zhe, Zhao Bian, Qin Guan, and Mi Fu—played decisive roles in elevating the monastery’s reputation. The paper also identifies its primary corpus, especially the Record of What Was Seen and Heard in Longjing, and explains why this source, despite potential textual variances, is adequate for the study’s interpretive aims.

The paper engages scholarship on the social worlds of monasteries and the cultural capital of literati networks. DeBlasi’s work on monastic society (Northern Song to Ming) frames monastic interactions with officials and local elites. Kieschnick’s study on the symbolism of the purple robe contextualizes imperial recognition of eminent monks and informs Biancai’s early honor. Discussions of literary Chan (Faure) and Song-dynasty monks and poetry (Protass) illuminate the integration of poetic production with Buddhist identity and authority, relevant to Biancai’s verse and Su Shi’s reception. Studies of Su Shi’s literary stature and networks (Egan) and manuscript culture around Tao Yuanming (Tian) help explain how Su’s calligraphy and endorsements amplified Longjing’s fame. Bao’s work on the origin of Longjing tea corrects later misconceptions linking Song-era “Dragon Tea” references to modern West Lake Longjing tea. The paper positions the Qing-era compilation Record of What Was Seen and Heard in Longjing (Wang Mengjuan) as its primary source, acknowledging its editorial mediation while treating it as sufficiently reliable for cultural-historical analysis.

Textual-historical analysis of primary sources centered on the Record of What Was Seen and Heard in Longjing (Longjing jianwen lu), with extensive use of its poetic corpus, travelogues, inscriptions, and anecdotes arranged chronologically. Corroboration and contextualization draw on contemporaneous materials such as the Gazetteer of Lin’an of the Xianchun Era, collected works of Su Shi (Dongpo Ji), Su Zhe (Luancheng Ji), Qin Guan (Huaihai Ji), Mi Fu’s calligraphic attributions, and official histories (Songshi). The study interprets narratives, poems, and epigraphic practices to trace reputational dynamics and site-making at Longjing. It explicitly forgoes detailed textual criticism of variant editions of the gazetteer, arguing that potential typographical or minor substantive differences do not affect the study’s broader interpretations.

- Longjing’s mythic associations (Ge Hong, dragon well) provided an initial aura but did not secure lasting prominence; sustained success derived from adept leadership and elite networks. - Biancai’s early imperial recognition (purple robe and honorary title at age 25) and his Tiantai and Pure Land credentials established him as a charismatic religious leader with both doctrinal attainment and popular appeal. - At Upper Tianzhu, Biancai demonstrated administrative and fundraising acumen, expanding the monastery and attracting learners; after a brief displacement by Wenjie, his return revitalized the institution. - Biancai’s move to Longjing catalyzed a new phase of site-making through friendships with literati: • Su Shi (from 1069; again 1088 as Hangzhou prefect) publicized Biancai’s charisma and alleged healing of Su’s son Su Dai (hydrocephaly), enhancing Biancai’s reputation for “mystical powers.” The episode inspired poems, a commemorative pavilion (Snow Slope), and the celebrated “Two Elders Pavilion/Bridge” to mark Su-Biancai farewells. • Zhao Bian linked Longjing with “Dragon Tea” in 1079 exchange poems, spreading Longjing’s fame beyond Hangzhou; the paper clarifies this is not modern West Lake Longjing tea. • Qin Guan’s “Record of Writing on Longjing,” later carved in stone in Mi Fu’s calligraphy, became a foundational textual-visual monument that drew visitors and shaped subsequent travel writing, exemplifying synergy between literature and calligraphy in site canonization. - The monastery’s renown was actively produced via poetic exchanges, calligraphy, inscriptions, and named scenic spots, orchestrated in part by Biancai’s foresight and organizational leadership.

The findings substantiate the thesis that numinous origins alone do not sustain a religious site’s prominence; rather, strategic sociality and cultural production are pivotal. Biancai’s case shows how a monk’s spiritual authority, reputed thaumaturgic efficacy, literary talent, and social diplomacy with elites translate into tangible institutional benefits: architectural expansions, named landmarks (pavilions/bridges), and enduring textual and epigraphic artifacts that attract pilgrims and literati. By leveraging the cultural capital of figures like Su Shi, Zhao Bian, Qin Guan, and Mi Fu, Biancai transformed Longjing into a celebrated destination. The interplay of poetry, calligraphy, and commemorative landscape features exemplifies Song-era mechanisms of reputation-building and the mutual constitution of religious authority and literati culture.

Monastic and mountain fame in the Northern Song required more than mythic pedigree; it depended on leaders adept at navigating social, political, and cultural terrains. Biancai exemplified such leadership: his spiritual attainments, reputed miraculous healing, and literary competence, coupled with cultivated friendships with leading officials and literati, elevated both his personal standing and Longjing’s status. Su Shi’s endorsements and commemorations, Zhao Bian’s poetic associations, and Qin Guan’s travelogue—inscribed in Mi Fu’s calligraphy—collectively sustained Longjing’s reputation. The study suggests that “making friends in the outside secular world” was a critical strategy for abbots seeking durable institutional prominence. Future research could compare Longjing with other Song monasteries to test the generality of these dynamics and to incorporate fuller textual criticism across source variants.

The analysis relies heavily on a Qing-era compilation (Record of What Was Seen and Heard in Longjing) without undertaking detailed textual criticism of variants; potential transcriptional or editorial differences are acknowledged but treated as inconsequential. The study focuses on a single case (Longjing/Biancai), which may limit generalizability across regions or traditions. Quantitative data are absent, and some episodes (e.g., miraculous healing) rest on contemporary testimonial and commemorative texts typical of hagiographic genres.