Unified in remembrance: reflections on collective war commemoration by war-affected immigrants in the Netherlands

The study examines how war-affected immigrants in the Netherlands relate to Remembrance Day (May 4th), when the Dutch commemorate civilians and military personnel who died since the start of WWII. While commemorations can elicit difficult emotions and distressing memories, psychosocial factors such as meaning making and societal support may buffer distress. Little is known about how these processes apply to immigrants who experienced war elsewhere and resettled in the Netherlands. Prior research indicates immigrants participate less in Dutch commemorations, influenced more by familiarity with commemorations in their country of origin than by personal WWII connections. The research questions are: (1) What is the individual impact of Remembrance Day on war-affected immigrants? (2) How do they reflect on the context of commemoration on Remembrance Day relative to their country of origin? (3) How do they view the form and performance of Remembrance Day rituals? Understanding these perspectives can inform inclusive commemoration practices and support for war-affected immigrants.

Theoretical background integrates three angles to study commemorations: impact, context, and ritual performance. Psychological research shows commemorations can trigger sadness and posttraumatic reactions, yet may foster coping via social integration, acknowledgment, social support, meaning making, and expression. Much prior work involved commemorations directly tied to individuals’ own war experiences; it is unclear if commemorations of other wars produce similar effects. Contextual analyses highlight that commemorations mirror societal values and politics, with cross-national differences (e.g., victimhood vs nationalism) and political involvement shaping public reception. Performance-focused scholarship emphasizes ritual elements (actions, actors, place, time, objects, language, groups) and suggests different elements have distinct impacts; future-oriented, expressive rituals may relate to more positive outcomes. Rituals are culturally specific; unfamiliarity may limit their transformative potential for immigrants. The study aims to integrate impact, context, and performance to understand when, how, and for whom commemoration rituals are meaningful.

Design: Qualitative study using two datasets of semi-structured interviews (secondary analysis of S1 plus new S2 interviews), integrating impact-, context-, and performance-related reflections on Dutch Remembrance Day. Participants and recruitment: Total N=25 war-affected immigrants from 8 countries (e.g., Bosnia-Herzegovina, Iraq, D.R. Congo, Vietnam, Syria, Chile, Kosovo, Yemen). S1 (n=16) were Bosnian and Iraqi refugees who fled in the 1990s, recruited via networks of Stichting BMP and associated researchers; interviews conducted in 2019 by SM. S2 (n=9) recruited by the first author in 2019 via personal/work networks to increase diversity in country of origin and time since arrival. Inclusion: sufficient Dutch language proficiency. Most participants had at least one prior participation in Remembrance Day (in person at various locations or via broadcast). Data collection: S1 interviews (video-recorded, 50–120 minutes; 15–30 minutes on commemoration) in Dutch; S2 interviews (audio-recorded, 30–60 minutes) in Dutch. S1 covered experiences of (un)freedom and commemoration (origin and Netherlands). S2 began with viewing 16 minutes of the National Commemoration broadcast, followed by reflections on familiarity, ritual performance, triggers, and perceived acknowledgment, support, meaning making, and expression. Ethics: Ethical approval for S2 from Utrecht University Ethics Review Board (FETC18–102). Informed consent obtained for both datasets. Analysis: Inductive qualitative analysis using MAXQDA 10. For S1, three-step coding (open, axial, selective) by HM; four interviews double-coded and discussed with IT and a third researcher; summaries per participant created; consensus on coding levels/themes achieved with HM, TM, PB. S2 coded open by HM blind to S1 outcomes; axial coding aligned with S1 themes with additions/restructuring as needed; selective coding integrated S1 and S2, comparing sets and refining themes. Themes grouped into impact-, context-, and performance-related reflections. No major thematic differences across sets; S2 provided deeper detail on impact; acknowledgment emerged only in S2.

- Participation: All but one had participated at least once in Remembrance Day (locally, Amsterdam, Westerbork, or via TV). - Impact-related themes: - Emotions: Multiple and mixed emotions. Sadness most common (11 participants), linked to personal losses and war tragedies; also feelings of downheartedness, powerlessness, and anger about ongoing global conflicts. Positive emotions included gratitude (4 participants) for safety/freedom and those who died for freedom, relief, pride, and calmness. Also longing and hope for their countries of origin. A few expressed neutrality or distance due to differences between WWII and their own experiences or habituation. - Social connectedness: Reported by 12 participants—felt togetherness with other war victims and the wider commemorating public; shared human values; reduced sense of isolation. Some simultaneously desired more diversity in attendees and scope (broader focus on all war victims and current conflicts rather than naming specific wars). - Expression: Nine participants experienced openness to express emotions and share stories, helping to break avoidance, process the past, and integrate experiences. - Meaning: Primarily future-oriented—reflecting on freedom, learning lessons, educating younger generations to prevent new wars, and (for some) maintaining ethnic heritage. Less emphasis on deriving personal benefit from their trauma; some noted powerlessness and comparisons to insufficient resistance/support in their own contexts. - Acknowledgement: When asked (S2), five participants perceived acknowledgment of victims in general but not of their individual suffering via Remembrance Day. - Personal memories: About two-thirds reported war-related memories being triggered; impacts varied (distress, relief, or emotional distance). - Context-related themes: - Complicated war contexts: Many experienced civil/multiple wars; conflicts sometimes ongoing; persistent divisions and limited reconciliation; contested histories (perpetrators as heroes, denial of atrocities), intergenerational transmission of hatred, and constrained dialogue. - Complex commemorations in countries of origin: Multiple selective or politicized events; attendance sometimes forced; disagreements about who/what to commemorate; many avoided such commemorations or commemorated within like-minded diaspora groups in the Netherlands to sidestep contested narratives. - Unity on Dutch Remembrance Day: Participants perceived a cohesive, unified narrative about WWII without hidden political agendas; focus on individual stories facilitated openness and reflection. - Performance-related themes: - Transformative rituals: Silence and music (mentioned by about half) were especially impactful, prompting reflection and accessing suppressed feelings; laying wreaths and presence of state officials conveyed acknowledgment/respect; youth involvement underscored intergenerational meaning; national symbols evoked hope/longing for home-country futures. The diversity of available rituals and formats (local monuments, TV, conversations) enabled personalized engagement. - Universal rituals: Most were familiar with common commemorative elements (silence, flowers, speeches, poems, candles, prayers); some described culturally specific practices (e.g., incense on altars; parade-like hero celebrations; diaspora social-reunion commemorations). - Individual rituals: Personal practices (lighting candles, viewing photos, helping others, artistic expressions, family storytelling, cultural days like Vietnamese New Year) served as meaningful ways to remember and cope.

Findings show that Remembrance Day affects war-affected immigrants across emotional, social, and meaning-related dimensions, even though the commemoration centers on WWII rather than their own wars. Emotions ranged from sadness and distress to gratitude, hope, and relief. Social connectedness emerged as central—participants felt belonging with other victims and the wider community, aligning with theories that collective rituals foster integration and shared identity. Expression during commemoration provided a safe, structured context to access emotions and narratives, potentially breaking avoidance. Meaning was largely future-oriented, emphasizing lessons for younger generations and the value of freedom. Context comparisons highlighted that many participants’ countries of origin feature ongoing conflicts and contested historical narratives, often making commemorations selective, politicized, or emotionally overwhelming, leading some to avoid them. In contrast, Remembrance Day was perceived as unified and non-coercive, with a cohesive narrative enabling openness to individual reflections and healing. Ritual performance played a transformative role: elements like silence and music allowed emotional engagement at a tolerable distance, and diverse ritual options supported personalized participation. Overall, the interaction between ritual form, societal context, and individual experience underpins commemoration’s impact, suggesting that inclusive, unified commemorations can support belonging and expression among war-affected immigrants.

Valuable commemoration for war-affected immigrants depends on the interplay of impact-, context-, and performance-related factors. Transformative and broadly understandable rituals enacted within a perceived united context can foster social connectedness and enable emotional expression, contributing to healing and integration—even when the commemorated war differs from individuals’ own experiences. Commemorations should remain open to multiple interpretations and experiences, balancing remembrance of specific histories with inclusive spaces that acknowledge diverse war trajectories and support personal coping. Future work should examine subgroup differences and cross-national settings to determine how varying commemorative contexts and ritual repertoires shape outcomes.

- Diverse, small sample limits representativeness and prevents subgroup analyses by country, age, gender, or time since arrival. - Potential confirmation bias due to more direct questioning in S2; acknowledgment emerged only in S2. - Some ambiguity between participants’ actual experiences during Remembrance Day versus their hopes/desires; unclear accounts were excluded as reflections. - Possible selection bias: high attendance and positive reflections may reflect self-selection of participants interested in the topic. - Reuse of S1 data entailed limited probing on certain topics (e.g., emotions, acknowledgment), though triangulation with S2 mitigated this.