Unified in remembrance: reflections on collective war commemoration by war-affected immigrants in the Netherlands

Commemorations serve as a society's moral memory, distinguishing events and persons worthy of remembrance or celebration. In the Netherlands, World War II (WWII) remembrance is a significant annual event, Remembrance Day (May 4th), marked by a nationwide two-minute silence. However, the Netherlands now includes many immigrant groups with diverse war experiences. This study examines how war-affected immigrants in the Netherlands connect with Remembrance Day, addressing a gap in research on the individual psychological impact of commemorations and how they assist individuals in coping with past experiences. While existing research shows that commemorations can evoke difficult emotions, psychosocial factors like social support and meaning-making can buffer distress. The study aims to understand the impact of Remembrance Day on these immigrants, comparing their experiences to commemorations in their home countries, and examining how they perceive the rituals of Remembrance Day. Understanding this will inform counselors working with war-affected immigrants and policymakers creating inclusive commemorations.

Commemorations are studied across disciplines, focusing on their impact, context, and performance. Psychological perspectives examine the impact on emotions, thoughts, and coping, noting that commemorations can trigger difficult emotions or PTSD symptoms but also contribute to better coping through meaning-making, social support, and acknowledgement of trauma. Historical and sociological perspectives analyze the social and political context, highlighting variations in commemoration across countries and its reflection of societal attitudes towards the past. Anthropological perspectives focus on ritual performances and their cultural significance, showing that future-oriented rituals promoting expression and reparation are associated with positive outcomes. However, there is limited research integrating these perspectives and examining the experiences of individuals involved in commemorations unrelated to their own personal war experiences.

This study used secondary analysis of two interview datasets. The first dataset (S1) comprised 16 semi-structured interviews conducted in 2019 with Bosnian and Iraqi immigrants who arrived in the Netherlands between 1990 and 2000. The second dataset (S2) included nine semi-structured interviews conducted in 2019 with immigrants from diverse countries, aiming for greater diversity in origin and time since arrival. Participants in S2 first viewed a 16-minute broadcast of the National Commemoration on Remembrance Day. Both datasets explored participants' experiences with commemoration in their home countries, their familiarity with Remembrance Day, and their reflections on the rituals and context of the commemoration. Inductive qualitative analysis using MAXQDA software was applied, with open, axial, and selective coding. The S1 interviews were coded first, with double coding and inter-researcher discussion for four interviews to ensure coding consistency. The S2 interviews were coded separately, then integrated with the S1 findings. Thematic analysis compared themes from both datasets, highlighting similarities and differences in responses.

The study identified three main themes: impact-related, context-related, and performance-related reflections. **Impact-related reflections:** Most participants experienced mixed emotions, with sadness being most common, linked to personal memories, losses, and the ongoing impact of war globally. However, positive emotions like gratitude, relief, and calmness were also reported. Commemoration in their home countries was generally associated with negative emotions due to complicated war contexts. Social connectedness emerged as a major theme, with participants feeling less alone and more connected to others sharing similar experiences. Openness to express emotions and share stories was beneficial, contributing to processing and integrating past experiences. Meaning-making was largely future-oriented, focusing on valuing freedom, learning from the past, and preventing future conflicts. Participants did not experience significant personal acknowledgement through Remembrance Day, primarily experiencing it as commemoration for war victims in general. Many participants recalled personal war memories, with varied emotional impact. **Context-related reflections:** Many participants described complicated war contexts in their countries of origin (civil wars, ongoing conflicts, contested histories), hindering collective commemoration and leading to complex or selective commemorative practices. In contrast, they viewed the context of Remembrance Day as unified and cohesive, with a clear narrative and purpose, fostering reflection on war victims and humanity. **Performance-related reflections:** Participants viewed the rituals of Remembrance Day as transformative and universal. The two-minute silence and music were particularly impactful, triggering memories and feelings. A variety of other rituals (laying wreaths, speeches, involvement of younger generations) were seen as significant. Individual rituals were also important for coping, including personal reflections, artistic expressions, and sharing stories within the family.

The study demonstrates a strong interaction between the performed rituals, context, and individual impact of commemoration. Social connectedness, more prominent than social support in prior research, played a crucial role, aligning with theories on the impact of collective gatherings. The unified context of Remembrance Day provided a safe space for processing difficult emotions. The lack of prominent personal acknowledgement may reflect the need for broader societal reconciliation and addressing the root causes of violence. Comparing the Dutch context to the complicated war contexts in participants' home countries highlights the importance of a unified and inclusive commemorative framework for facilitating healing and integration.

This study underscores the importance of inclusive war commemorations. Involving war-affected immigrants, providing opportunities for emotional expression, and fostering social connectedness can be highly beneficial. While remembering specific historical events is valuable, it should be accompanied by a broader perspective on humanity and the lessons learned. Future research should explore the diversity within war-affected immigrant populations and conduct international comparisons to better understand how contextual factors influence the impact of commemoration.

The sample's diversity and limited size prevented detailed analysis by country of origin, age, gender, or time since arrival. The direct questions in S2 interviews might have introduced confirmation bias, although most themes from S2 were also present in S1. The high participation rate among those attending Remembrance Day might skew the positive reflections. Despite these limitations, the study's diversity offers valuable insights into the function of commemoration.