Translations in Children's Paradise (1970-1979): the Union's agendas and the Cold War cultural diplomacy in Hong Kong

The Cold War saw translations become a key tool in ideological battles. While US government-sponsored translation campaigns in Asia have been widely studied, the role of unofficial agencies and their diverse motivations remains underexplored. This study focuses on the Union, a Hong Kong-based organization with ties to the Asia Foundation, and its children's magazine, *Children's Paradise* (CP). Existing scholarship often views CP solely through the lens of American anti-communist propaganda, overlooking the Union's independent agendas and the magazine's adaptation to the local context of 1970s Hong Kong. This study argues that CP’s translation practices, while aligned with a general anti-communist sentiment, were significantly shaped by the Union's distinct vision of a progressive, culturally rich China, and its need to engage with the specific social and political realities of British-ruled Hong Kong. The complex interplay between American patronage, the Union’s own goals, and the local context necessitates a re-evaluation of CP's role in Cold War cultural diplomacy.

Existing research highlights the use of translations as a weapon in Cold War cultural diplomacy, focusing largely on government-sponsored initiatives and their dissemination of Western values. However, the diverse roles of unofficial agencies, particularly in popular culture, are less understood. Studies on online literature translation in China and private-sector initiatives in Japan have shown tensions and complexities between governmental and non-governmental endeavors in cultural diplomacy. Scholarly work on CP has often framed it within the context of American anti-communist campaigns, neglecting the Union's independent agendas and the magazine's adaptation to the local context of 1970s Hong Kong. This study addresses this gap by examining CP's translation practices through a nuanced lens that considers both global and local dynamics.

This study analyzes a quantitative sample of approximately 120 translated picture stories from CP's 1970-1979 issues, primarily sourced from English and Japanese. The analysis focuses on three recurring features of these translations: 1) the systematic exclusion of the term "China" from both text and illustrations; 2) the promotion of cultural and historical aspects of "China" through domestication and sinicization strategies; and 3) the adaptation of source texts to resonate with the growing Hong Kong consciousness of the 1970s. The study examines specific examples from translated stories like *Gulliver Guinea-Pig's Adventure*, *The Little Bear*, Dr. Seuss's books, and *Doraemon*, analyzing translation choices, omissions, substitutions, and additions to illustrate the three key characteristics. The analysis considers both verbal and visual elements of the target texts, exploring how the Union's China-centric agendas are reflected in the translation strategies employed by CP's editorial team. The study acknowledges the collaborative nature of CP's translations, recognizing the contributions of the editor-in-chief and illustrators.

The analysis reveals three significant characteristics in CP's translations: 1. **Exclusion of Political and Geographical "China":** The term "China" was consistently omitted or replaced when it appeared in the source texts. This was not simply due to anti-communist sentiment, but rather a strategic move to distance CP from the political realities of both the PRC and the ROC. The exclusion of “China” is demonstrated through examples where episodes explicitly mentioning China were omitted, references to China were replaced with other geographical locations, and illustrations were altered to remove references to the country. However, the study notes that this exclusion was not absolute, as other communist countries (such as the Soviet Union) were included in some translated works, suggesting that the omission of China was driven by the Union's specific agendas rather than a blanket anti-communist stance. 2. **Promotion of Cultural and Historical "China":** While the political and geographical mention of China was suppressed, CP actively promoted China’s rich cultural heritage. The study finds evidence of extensive domestication strategies, replacing original names, locations, and visual elements with those relevant to Chinese mythology and folklore. This strategy aimed to connect young readers with their cultural roots and create a sense of shared identity within a broad definition of Chinese civilization. Examples were provided from various translated texts where characters' names and settings were changed to fit a Chinese cultural context, thereby creating a more relatable experience for the young Hong Kong readers. 3. **Adaptation for Hong Kong Consciousness:** In addition to the Union's China-centric agendas, CP also demonstrated a pragmatic adaptation to the evolving socio-political landscape of 1970s Hong Kong. The study highlights examples where the translators incorporated references to local events and concerns, such as the "Clean Hong Kong Campaign," showcasing an engagement with civic life and a responsiveness to the rising Hong Kong identity. This included renaming characters using Cantonese names that retained cultural connotations while using colloquial and familiar language, reflecting the increasing dominance of Cantonese as the language of daily life in Hong Kong. This adaptation helped CP maintain its relevance and popularity in the local market, demonstrating a skillful negotiation between global and local contexts.

This study challenges the simplistic view of CP as a mere tool of American anti-communist propaganda. The findings demonstrate that while the Union collaborated with American cultural diplomacy, its translation practices were fundamentally driven by its own China-centric agenda and the need to connect with its Hong Kong audience. The systematic exclusion of "China" in its political context, the promotion of Chinese culture and history, and the adaptation to local concerns reveal a complex interplay of global and local factors shaping CP's cultural diplomacy. The success of CP, even after losing funding from the Asia Foundation, further highlights the effectiveness of its localized approach. The study’s findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the intricacies of Cold War cultural diplomacy, revealing how non-official agencies could pursue their own agendas while navigating global and local pressures. The study also underscores the importance of nuanced analyses that go beyond the simplistic framework of state-centric approaches to cultural diplomacy.

This study offers a nuanced perspective on the role of translations in Cold War cultural diplomacy, demonstrating how a non-official agency navigated complex political and cultural contexts to advance its own agenda. By analyzing the translations in *Children's Paradise*, the study reveals the multifaceted nature of CP's engagement with both American cultural diplomacy and the evolving socio-political landscape of 1970s Hong Kong. The Union's commitment to its China-centric vision, its skillful adaptation to the local context, and CP's lasting impact on Hong Kong’s youth highlight the effectiveness of its strategy. Future research could explore the long-term cultural impact of CP and further investigate the translation practices of other unofficial agencies during the Cold War.

The study's analysis is based on a sample of approximately 120 translated stories. While this sample provides a significant basis for the analysis, future research could benefit from examining a larger corpus of translated texts from CP. Additionally, the study's focus is primarily on textual and visual analysis. Further research could incorporate other methodologies, such as reader reception studies, to gain a more comprehensive understanding of CP's impact.