Effective governance hinges on communication between rulers and the ruled, particularly in multilingual contexts. This paper focuses on the Qing dynasty, a multi-ethnic empire encompassing diverse languages. The Qing authorities employed "governance by translation," recognizing the crucial role of translating official documents—laws, regulations, decrees—to implement their governance objectives. Previous research has explored aspects of this translation, such as Manchu-Tibetan document translation or diplomatic document translation, but lacked a comprehensive overview within the framework of governance by translation. This study addresses this gap by analyzing the governance orientations of official document translation during the Qing period, examining how translation was strategically employed to govern a multi-ethnic and multilingual state. The paper leverages the concept of "document politics" inherent in Chinese governance traditions since ancient times, emphasizing the use of texts as instruments of power. While earlier Han Chinese dynasties implemented monolingual policies using Classical Chinese, non-Han dynasties like the Qing adopted a multilingual approach. The Qing dynasty, uniquely, prioritized translation, viewing it as a primary governance tool, as evidenced by the belief that "translation is the priority task of the Manchus."

Existing research on official document translation in the Qing dynasty falls into three categories: studies on Manchu-Tibetan document translation practices; research on diplomatic document translation; and studies focusing on either official document translation or the specific roles of translation officials. While these studies highlight the importance of translation, they lack a comprehensive analysis of this practice within the framework of "governance by translation." This study aims to fill this gap by providing a systematic overview of the regime underlying official document translation during the Qing dynasty, going beyond mere historical records and summaries.

This study employs documentary analysis as its primary methodology. The researchers draw upon various official historical records, including the *Veritable Records of Qing Dynasty Rulers*, the *Collected Statutes of the Qing Dynasty*, the *Imperial Regulations and Precedents of the Board of Ministry for the Regulations of the Frontier*, the *History Compiled on Imperial Command*, the *Imperial Comprehensive Treatises*, and the *Provisional History of the Qing Dynasty*. These sources, compiled and published under imperial or governmental orders, provide primary evidence for language and translation policies, and the organized regimes of translation practices during the Qing dynasty. By systematically analyzing these documents, the study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of "governance by official document translation" in the Qing dynasty. The theoretical framework draws upon Koskinen's model of translational options in multilingual governance, which identifies four regimes of textual and translation practices relevant to governance: maintenance, regulation, implementation, and image-building. The study also utilizes Dean's analytical framework on governmentality, focusing on the "organized practices" or "regimes of government." This integrated approach allows for a comprehensive examination of the translation governmentality in the Qing context, encompassing an investigation of governing authorities, language and translation policies, the establishment and operation of translation agencies, and the roles and numbers of translation officials.

The study reveals that the Qing dynasty's official document translation policy served three primary governance objectives: maintaining the core institutional framework of the state; ensuring the functionality of the state bureaucracy; and constructing the legitimacy of state governance. To achieve these objectives, the Qing dynasty developed a sophisticated translation regime. Multiple translation agencies were established, each handling specific types of documents. These included agencies for routine memorials (Grand Secretariat with its Chinese, Manchu, and Mongolian sections), imperial edicts (initially handled by various agencies but later consolidated within the Grand Secretariat and Council of State), documents related to ethnic affairs (Lifanyuan with its Chinese Archive and Mongolian Translation Office), and documents related to foreign affairs (Interpreters and Translators Institute). The regime also relied on a significant number of specialized translation officials, including *dorgi bithesi* and *bithesi*, whose numbers increased significantly over time, reflecting the growing importance of translation. The multilingual translation practices involved structured processes for translating documents between Manchu, Mongolian, Chinese, Tibetan, and Uyghur, reflecting the multilingual nature of the Qing empire and the specific needs of different regions and ethnic groups. The translation processes for Manchu-Mongolian and Manchu-Chinese documents were particularly detailed, highlighting the effort to ensure both efficiency and accuracy. The translation of Manchu-Tibetan and Manchu-Uyghur documents, while not formally institutionalized in the same way, also followed established procedures reflecting the Qing government's commitment to "governing according to local customs."

The findings demonstrate that the Qing dynasty successfully employed translation as a core element of its governance strategy. The extensive translation regime facilitated effective communication and the implementation of policies across a vast, multi-ethnic, and multilingual territory. The systematic approach to translation helped maintain the centralized authority of the emperor, ensured the smooth functioning of the bureaucracy, and enhanced the legitimacy of Manchu rule, especially given their minority status within the empire. The study's findings challenge the traditional view of governance in imperial China and highlight the role of translation in shaping political power and stability. The meticulous organization and extensive resources devoted to translation in the Qing dynasty underscore the significance of language and translation in effective governance.

The Qing dynasty's approach to governance, characterized by its reliance on "translation governmentality," represents a significant case study in multilingual state administration. The study's findings highlight the importance of considering linguistic diversity and implementing well-organized translation regimes to achieve effective governance. The research also points to the necessity of further research into the impact of translation on other aspects of Qing society and culture beyond formal governance. Future research might explore the social and cultural implications of translation, the training and professionalization of translators, and the evolution of translation practices over time. This study offers valuable insights for contemporary policymakers facing similar challenges of managing linguistic diversity within a unified political context.

The study primarily relies on official documents, which may present a biased perspective. While the researchers acknowledge this, they highlight the value of using these official records as primary sources for understanding state policies and practices. Future research could incorporate non-official sources to provide a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of the topic. Additionally, the study predominantly focuses on the macro-level aspects of translation governmentality, potentially overlooking micro-level interactions and experiences of individual translators and those involved in translation processes.