The transmedial triangulation of Dracula: how cinema turned the Gothic bloodsucker into a Gothicized serial killer

Bram Stoker's *Dracula* has been reinterpreted countless times across various media. This paper focuses on the Romanian context, examining how the first Romanian vampire novel, *Vampirul* (The Vampire), by G.M. Amza and Al. Bilciurescu, emerged not as a direct literary imitation of *Dracula*, but as a product of "transmedial triangulation." This concept expands upon Franco Moretti's theory of peripheral cultures importing "foreign plots" with "local characters." The authors propose that cinema served as the crucial intermediary, transforming the reception of the vampire trope before its literary adaptation in Romania. Existing scholarship highlights various interpretations of *Dracula*—economic, political, and postcolonial—but this study examines the novel's influence from a Transylvanian perspective, exploring how it shaped a minor literature and was adopted by other cultures. Romania's peripheral position within European literary currents offers a unique case study. While the Gothic vampire archetype is largely absent from Romanian oral and written culture, the vampire trope gained traction through French and German influences, theater, and the cinema's popularization of the myth in the 1930s. The authors argue that *Vampirul* exemplifies transmedial triangulation, where the "foreign plot" of *Dracula* was first transmediated through cinema and then reinterpreted with "local characters" in the Romanian novel, offering new insights into the evolution of literary tropes.

The paper draws upon existing scholarship on *Dracula*, including its economic, political, and postcolonial interpretations. It references Moretti's work on the circulation of literature and the adaptation of "foreign plots" in peripheral cultures. It also incorporates Terian's concept of "cultural triangulation," expanding it to include transmedial influences. The authors cite various studies on the vampire myth's evolution in Romania, emphasizing the role of foreign plays, motion pictures, and translations in shaping its understanding. They also acknowledge the connection between the fictional Dracula and Vlad the Impaler, while highlighting the limited representation of the Gothic vampire in Romanian culture. The paper engages with discussions of the vampire trope's shifting meanings throughout the 1930s, influenced by Marxism, cinema, and real-life serial killer cases. Relevant works cited include McNally and Florescu's *In Search of Dracula* and Light's *The Dracula Dilemma*, along with various studies on the cultural history of the vampire in Romania.

The paper employs a close reading analysis of *Vampirul*, comparing it to Stoker's *Dracula* and relevant 1930s vampire films. The authors analyze textual evidence in both novels, identifying similarities and differences in plot, characters, and themes. They explore the contextual factors influencing the creation of *Vampirul*, including the reception of 1930s vampire films in Romania and the impact of real-life crime cases, such as that of Peter Kürten (the "Vampire of Düsseldorf"). The analysis examines how cinematic representations of vampires, influenced by Stoker's work or inspired by real events, shaped the portrayal of the vampire in *Vampirul*. The authors analyze how the media coverage of Peter Kürten and films like Fritz Lang's *M* (1931) and Tod Browning's *Mark of the Vampire* (1935) contributed to a shift in the vampire trope, influencing the depiction of the vampire as a serial killer. The authors discuss the similarities between *Dracula* and *Vampirul*, particularly the protagonists' journeys, encounters with local superstitions, and descriptions of the vampire antagonists. The analysis also focuses on the differences between the two novels, highlighting the unique portrayal of the vampire in *Vampirul* as a human serial killer disguised as a vampire. The paper analyzes the social and political context of Romania during the 1930s, relating it to the novel's themes and the portrayal of the vampire as a figure linked to capitalistic interests and the feudal order. It explores how the novel reflects societal anxieties and unrest through the depiction of the vampire as a "criminaloid," using perspectives from early twentieth-century criminology and Gothic criminology.

The key finding is the identification of "transmedial triangulation" as a crucial factor in the evolution of the vampire trope in Romanian literature. The authors demonstrate that *Vampirul*, while drawing inspiration from Stoker's *Dracula*, was profoundly shaped by the intervening medium of cinema. The analysis reveals how 1930s vampire films, influenced by *Dracula* or by real-life serial killer cases, transformed the vampire archetype before its adaptation in *Vampirul*. Specific cinematic influences identified include Tod Browning's *Mark of the Vampire* and Fritz Lang's *M*, which contributed to a shift towards portraying vampires as serial killers. The paper shows how the vampire in *Vampirul* transcends the traditional Gothic portrayal, becoming a Gothicized crime fiction character, a human priest masquerading as a vampire for personal gain. The comparison of *Dracula* and *Vampirul* highlights similarities in plot structure and characters, but also significant differences in the portrayal of the vampire antagonist. The analysis of *Vampirul*'s social and political context demonstrates how the novel reflects the societal anxieties and unrest of 1930s Romania, connecting the vampire figure to capitalistic interests and the lingering feudal order. The authors analyze the portrayal of the vampire-priest as a "criminaloid," reflecting the criminological typologies popular at the time. The paper notes that the vampire guise in *Vampirul*, similar to *Mark of the Vampire*, is performative, serving as a means to manipulate the community's beliefs and maintain a feudalistic power structure. The authors argue that the choice of an actor (in *Mark of the Vampire*) and a priest (in *Vampirul*) to embody the vampire persona is significant, given the professions' blurring of rational and imaginary elements. The analysis suggests that the authors used these backgrounds to challenge the characters' grasp on reality and foreground the tendency to attribute societal problems to supernatural forces.

The findings of this paper contribute to the understanding of literary influence and transmedial processes. It challenges the traditional view of literary adaptation as a simple transfer of "foreign plots" with "local characters," demonstrating the significant role of intermediary media. The paper's exploration of transmedial triangulation opens new avenues for research into the interplay between literature and other art forms, particularly cinema. The analysis of *Vampirul* contributes to studies on the evolution of the vampire trope, revealing how its interpretation shifted in response to cultural, social, and cinematic influences. The study's examination of the novel's social and political context offers insights into the ways in which literature reflects and engages with broader societal anxieties and transformations. The research questions the assumptions of linear literary influence and showcases the complex and multi-layered nature of cultural exchange.

This study demonstrates that *Vampirul*, the first Romanian vampire novel, is not a simple adaptation of *Dracula*, but a product of transmedial triangulation, significantly shaped by the intervening influence of 1930s horror cinema. The paper contributes to a richer understanding of how cinematic representations of the vampire impacted subsequent literary works. It highlights the importance of considering transmedial influences when analyzing literary adaptations and the evolution of literary tropes. Future research could explore further examples of transmedial triangulation in other national literary contexts, expanding the understanding of this process across different media and cultural landscapes.

The study's primary limitation lies in the difficulty of definitively proving a direct link between the authors of *Vampirul* and specific films. While circumstantial evidence strongly suggests cinematic influence, direct textual evidence of this connection remains limited. Further research involving archival materials or personal accounts could potentially strengthen this aspect of the argument. The study focuses primarily on a specific cultural context—Romania in the 1930s—and the conclusions may not be fully generalizable to other times and places. Future work could explore the extent to which transmedial triangulation operates within other cultural contexts and historical periods.