Despite progress toward gender equality, full equality remains elusive in areas such as pay and position levels. Prior research suggests gender stereotypes significantly hinder women's career advancement by influencing employment decisions and contributing to self-limiting behaviors. Existing research on gender stereotype content, focusing on the constructs of agency and communality, shows inconsistencies. The authors hypothesize that these inconsistencies arise from a lack of focus on the multi-faceted nature of agency and communality. This study therefore aims to develop a multi-dimensional framework for assessing current gender stereotypes, examining how men and women are perceived by others and themselves, and comparing these self- and other-perceptions. The researchers hope to demonstrate the benefits of viewing agency and communality as multi-dimensional constructs in understanding gender stereotypes.

Gender stereotypes, stemming from the unequal distribution of men and women into social roles, traditionally portray men as agentic (assertive, independent, competent, leadership-oriented) and women as communal (caring, sociable, emotionally sensitive). While stereotypes offer an adaptive function by simplifying social perception, they also lead to biased assessments. The persistence of stereotypes is fueled by continued role segregation despite advancements in women's workforce participation. Research on the evolution of gender stereotypes shows conflicting findings, some suggesting change while others suggest persistence. These inconsistencies may result from variations in how agency and communality are measured, often overlooking their multi-dimensional nature. Existing research has also explored self-stereotyping, examining how individuals internalize gender stereotypes and their influence on self-identity. Studies comparing self- and other-characterizations have yielded mixed results, some showing less stereotyping in self-descriptions.

The study employed an online experiment using Amazon Mechanical Turk, recruiting 628 US participants (61% female). Participants' ages ranged from 19 to 83 (mean 34.5 years), and education levels varied. The experimental design included two independent variables: rater gender (male or female) and target group (men in general, women in general, or self). Participants rated the target group on a 7-point scale using an attribute inventory representing multiple dimensions of agency and communality. Scale construction involved an inductive procedure in four steps: (1) identifying 74 attributes representing agency and communality from prior research, (2) sorting attributes into categories based on conceptual similarity by three judges, (3) independent verification of categories by three additional judges, and (4) confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to refine categories and eliminate low-fitting items. This process yielded seven scales: four for agency (instrumental competence, leadership competence, assertiveness, independence) and three for communality (concern for others, sociability, emotional sensitivity). The reliability of each scale (Cronbach's alpha) was assessed, resulting in scales ranging from 3-4 items with coefficient alphas exceeding 0.75 and corrected item-scale correlations exceeding 0.40. CFA confirmed the multi-dimensional structure. In addition to the multi-dimensional scales, the researchers constructed overall agency and overall communality scales for comparative purposes. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) were used to compare stereotype ratings and self-ratings, controlling for potential confounding factors such as rater age and education.

Analyses revealed persistent gender stereotypes, particularly regarding agency. Male raters consistently rated women lower in agency than men and lower than female raters rated women. Female raters, while showing some stereotyping, differentiated among agency dimensions, rating women lower only in assertiveness. Both male and female raters rated men and women equally on instrumental competence. Communality stereotypes were equally prevalent for both male and female raters, with women consistently rated higher in communality than men across all three dimensions. Self-ratings showed gender differences consistent with stereotypes, with women rating themselves lower in leadership competence and assertiveness compared to men despite no overall difference in agency ratings. Women rated themselves lower on these two agency dimensions than they rated other women, while men rated themselves higher in communality than they rated other men. There was also some divergence between self-ratings and ratings of one's gender group. Women rated themselves higher than they rated women in general in instrumental competence and concern for others, whereas men rated themselves higher in all aspects of communality compared to how they rated men in general. However, women rated themselves lower than other women in assertiveness and leadership competence.

The results support the researchers' hypothesis that a multi-dimensional approach to agency and communality provides more nuanced insights into gender stereotypes than using overall measures. The findings reveal persistent stereotypes, particularly in agency-related dimensions, with notable discrepancies between male and female raters’ assessments. Self-characterizations often aligned with stereotypes but also showed some departures, highlighting the complexity of self-perception and the interplay between self-enhancement and stereotype conformity. The observed discrepancies between self-ratings and ratings of one's gender group emphasize the importance of considering different aspects of agency and communality when examining stereotype influence.

This study demonstrates the value of a multidimensional framework for understanding gender stereotypes. While traditional stereotypes persist, particularly in agency, there are also notable deviations, particularly among female raters who do not consistently see women as lacking in all aspects of agency. The differences between self and other ratings also highlight the complexity of self-perception within gendered contexts. Future research should explore additional facets of agency and communality, investigate the impact of various dimensions on different outcomes, and examine cross-cultural variations in gender stereotypes.

The study's limitations include the use of a convenience sample, restricting generalization. Although age and education level were controlled, the role of other factors like race and socioeconomic status remains unexplored. The scale construction, while informed by existing literature, might have been influenced by the selection of items, warranting alternative methods for future research. Cross-cultural replication and the investigation of intersectionality in gender stereotypes are necessary for enhanced generalizability and understanding.