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The mechanical monster and discourses of fear and fascination in the early history of the computer

Computer Science

The mechanical monster and discourses of fear and fascination in the early history of the computer

H. Grenham

Delve into the thrilling intersection of monstrosity and technology as Hannah Grenham uncovers how early digital computers of the 1950s sparked cultural fears and fascinations. This exploration showcases the duality of admiration and concern surrounding machines like ENIAC and UNIVAC, revealing deeper insights into human-mechanical hybridity and our complex relationship with new technologies.

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Playback language: English
Introduction
The blurring of lines between humanity and mechanization has been a recurring theme in fiction, generating both intrigue and horror. This paper argues that the development of the digital computer in the 20th century, particularly in the United States, created a similar conflict in cultural attitudes due to its potential for 'thinking' independently. The term 'computer' itself evolved from describing human operators to describing the machines, adding to the mystique. This paper explores how the computer's interactivity and potential for human-machine hybridity led to its being perceived as a uniquely 'mechanical monster' in its early years. The focus is on public responses to early digital computers in the 1950s US, using ENIAC, WHIRLWIND, and UNIVAC as case studies, acknowledging that computing developments also occurred globally. While these computers were initially used for military, scientific, and industrial purposes, their public representation through media and popular culture shaped cultural attitudes more significantly than their practical applications. The analysis will employ an externalist approach, considering the relationship between the computer, contemporary American society, and broader cultural attitudes towards technology, particularly focusing on discourses of monstrosity, technophobia, and cyborgism.
Literature Review
The paper establishes theoretical frameworks connecting humanity, technology, and monstrosity. Carroll's conception of monstrosity as a 'violation of the natural order' is central, emphasizing intentionality and the relationship to scientific boundaries. The paper also draws on the idea of technicity as co-constitutive, as posited by Latour and Hayles. This highlights the transformative properties of technology and the ambiguous relationship between humans and technology, moving beyond instrumental and determinist views. Edwards' analysis of Cold War discourses surrounding computers—'closed-world discourse' and 'cyborg discourse'—provides a model for connecting discourse and social context to understand cultural attitudes. The paper also examines the technological sublime in the US, acknowledging the simultaneous excitement and fear surrounding powerful technologies like nuclear weapons and domestic appliances. The review also considers the impact of technological determinism and the concept of technology as a tool versus an autonomous force shaping society.
Methodology
The methodology focuses on discourse analysis of public responses to three early American computers: ENIAC, UNIVAC, and WHIRLWIND. The analysis draws upon contemporaneous media representations (news articles, magazines, television broadcasts, cartoons) and public statements to identify recurring themes and metaphors used to describe these machines. The researchers look at how these representations shaped public understanding and perceptions. The paper adopts an externalist approach, exploring the interplay between technological developments, societal anxieties, and broader cultural attitudes towards technology in the Cold War era. The researchers examine the language used to describe the computers, the imagery employed in their portrayal, and the overall narrative constructed around them. They analyze how these elements contributed to the perception of computers as monstrous, analyzing the use of anthropomorphism, the depiction of the computer as an 'electronic brain,' and the presentation of the computer's role in relation to human operators. The researchers also explore how humor and fascination were used to manage potential anxieties related to the technology. By examining these different aspects of the discourse, the researchers aim to gain a deeper understanding of the complex relationship between technology and society in the 1950s.
Key Findings
Public representations of early computers frequently employed anthropomorphism, referring to them as 'electronic brains,' 'Mechanical Einstein,' or even 'mathematical Frankenstein.' This anthropomorphic language, coupled with imagery in media, contributed to a perception of the computer as a human-machine hybrid, a creature inhabiting the liminal space of monstrosity. The analysis of UNIVAC's role in 1952 election coverage highlights the simultaneous fear and fascination surrounding the technology. While CBS attempted to humanize UNIVAC to make it more palatable to the public, the initial prediction made by the computer that contradicted human experts revealed an underlying anxiety about the potential for machines to surpass human capabilities. The 'Man vs. Machine' narrative in subsequent elections further underscores this competition. The WHIRLWIND's appearance on 'See It Now' demonstrated attempts to emphasize human control over the machine by highlighting the role of expert operators, maintaining the instrumental view of technology. However, the show still highlighted the marvel of the machine, pointing to the ongoing fascination alongside fear. Humorous representations in cartoons such as 'To Hare Is Human' presented a comically fallible computer to ease public anxieties, highlighting the machine's limitations and ultimately reasserting human dominance. The consistent depiction of computers in both positive and negative light demonstrates the duality of the public perception of the technology – a simultaneous fear and fascination – mirroring the technological sublime's influence on American culture. The analysis shows that this duality was more present in representations than in the actual mechanics of early computers. The inherent interaction and potential for hybridity of computers made them appear uniquely 'impure' and therefore monstrous, particularly in a time of Cold War anxieties.
Discussion
The findings indicate that the perception of early computers as monstrous was not simply a product of technophobia but a complex interplay of factors. The interactive nature of the computer, combined with its potential for artificial intelligence and its connection to significant technological projects of the Cold War, created a unique context that fueled both fear and fascination. The frequent use of anthropomorphic language and imagery highlights how the public struggled to reconcile the machine's instrumental value with its potential for autonomous action. The attempts to humanize the machine, as seen in the UNIVAC election coverage, suggest a conscious effort to manage public anxieties, reinforcing the instrumental view of technology as a tool under human control. The research highlights how the perception of this technology evolved, from a sense of marvel and awe to anxieties about potential threats to human autonomy and even existence. The dual nature of fear and fascination reflects the complex and ambiguous relationship between society and a rapidly advancing technology. These findings suggest the significance of considering social and cultural contexts when assessing the impact of new technologies.
Conclusion
This paper demonstrates how the discourse surrounding early digital computers in the 1950s US shaped public perception, creating the image of the computer as a 'mechanical monster.' The combination of anthropomorphic imagery, anxieties about technological autonomy, and the fascination with its potential created a compelling and enduring cultural narrative. Further research could explore how this discourse influenced the development of later technologies and how similar narratives develop around contemporary technological advancements, such as artificial intelligence and robotics. The study’s findings also highlight the importance of analyzing the cultural context surrounding technology when assessing its societal impact.
Limitations
The study primarily focuses on American cultural representations of early computers, limiting the scope of its analysis to a specific national context. While acknowledging the global development of computing, the paper’s primary focus on the US might not fully represent global perceptions. Furthermore, the analysis relies heavily on publicly available media representations, which might not fully capture the diversity of individual experiences and opinions on the topic. Future research could benefit from incorporating additional sources such as personal accounts and internal documents from companies involved in the development of these early computers.
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