The influence of visual and auditory environments in parks on visitors' landscape preference, emotional state, and perceived restorativeness

Various auditory and visual factors influence perception and restorative experiences in spatial environments, yet few studies examine their integrated effects. This study surveyed 861 visitors across five urban parks in Hangzhou, China, and collected audiovisual data to test a moderated mediation model using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The research assessed direct, indirect, and moderating effects of common park audiovisual environments on perceived restorativeness (PRS), emotional states (ES), and landscape preferences (LP). Results show most nature-related visual and auditory factors directly benefit PRS, ES, and LP, while some (e.g., trees and water sounds) also act indirectly through LP and ES. Visual features and sound sources demonstrated moderating effects on ES and PRS. Birdsong exhibited a strong positive association with PRS, ES, and LP, contingent on acoustic quality indicators. Findings provide guidance for designing urban park spaces through integrated visual-auditory strategies.