The Effect of Social Relationships on the Well-Being and Happiness of Older Adults Living Alone or with Relatives

The study addresses how the type of cohabitation (living alone versus living with relatives) relates to positive mental health outcomes—specifically well-being and happiness—among older adults. With an increasing proportion of Europeans over 65 and a high incidence of older adults, particularly women, living alone (e.g., in Spain), understanding the impact of living arrangements on health and subjective wellbeing is important. Prior work has focused extensively on negative outcomes of living alone (e.g., cognitive decline, depression, social isolation), but there is a need to explore positive psychological dimensions (life satisfaction, well-being, happiness). The authors hypothesize that living with relatives predicts better health, autonomy, and social support, which together are associated with higher well-being and happiness, whereas living alone is associated with poorer perceived health, autonomy, social support networks, and leisure engagement, relating to lower well-being and happiness.

Prior studies show living alone is linked to poorer well-being and increased health risks among older adults. Evidence suggests living with others helps maintain well-being and happiness, while transitions to living alone reduce these outcomes. Self-perceived health relates to cohabitation type and is generally worse among older adults living alone, with age moderating associations. Autonomy in daily activities supports independence and is influenced by cohabitation; lower autonomy and activity relate to worse well-being. Social interactions and support networks, particularly family, strongly predict well-being and health, and technologies can enhance social connectedness. Participation in leisure (physical, cultural, outdoor) is consistently associated with higher well-being, and those living with family tend to participate more. Environmental quality (neighborhood condition, access to green/blue spaces) is associated with better health and happiness, and it relates positively to getting along with family and friends. The literature suggests that beyond cohabitation, social relationships, activity/leisure, and environmental quality are key protective factors for positive mental health in later life.

Design: Cross-sectional study. Participants: N=352 older adults (≥65 years) recruited from senior centers in Seville via intentional sampling. Sex: 50.6% women, 49.4% men. Education: 46.6% no education, 34.9% primary, 19% middle/higher. Age: 65–69 (25.6%), 70–74 (24.4%), 75–79 (31%), ≥80 (19%). Cohabitation: 46.2% living alone; 53.8% living with family. Income: 67.6% < EUR 900/month; 32.4% ≥ EUR 900/month. Instruments: - CUBRECAVI Brief Quality of Life Questionnaire assessing 9 dimensions (health; social integration; functional abilities; activity/leisure; environmental quality; life satisfaction; income; social/health services; education) with Likert 1–4 responses. Reliabilities: Health α=0.839; Social integration α=0.648; Activity level α=0.723; Functional abilities α=0.861; Environmental quality α=0.510. - Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS), 5 items, Likert 1–7; α=0.812. - Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ), 29 items, Likert 1–6; α=0.804. Procedure: Data collected over 6 weeks in small groups (~8 participants) to ensure comprehension; sessions ≤40 minutes with breaks. Prior appointments, informed consent obtained. Questionnaires administered by trained researchers. Ethical approval: University Pablo de Olavide CEIH (22/3-3), in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Data analysis: SPSS v23; α=0.05. Descriptive statistics for sociodemographics. MANOVA to test differences by sex and cohabitation, controlling age as covariate. Pearson correlations (partial correlations controlling sex) among predictors and outcomes. Hierarchical multiple regression predicting well-being and happiness: Model 1 included age, sex, education, income, cohabitation; Model 2 added psychosocial variables (health, social integration, activity level, leisure, functional skills, environmental quality). Multicollinearity checked via VIF (~1–2, low).

- Cohabitation-related sociodemographics: Those living alone were older (χ2(3,351)=17.88, p<0.001), had lower education (χ2(2,351)=7.54, p=0.02), and lower income (χ2(1,351)=20.11, p<0.001). - MANOVA (controlling age): Living with relatives associated with higher social integration (F(1,345)=29.05, p<0.001), more functional skills (F(1,345)=5.08, p=0.025), greater well-being/life satisfaction (F(1,345)=7.73, p=0.006), and greater happiness (F(1,345)=9.18, p=0.003). Sex×cohabitation interactions: Health (F(1,343)=4.65, p=0.032) and activity level (F(1,346)=5.14, p=0.024); women overall reported better health (3.26±0.38) and higher activity (2.44±0.94), especially women living with family (health 3.32±0.35; activity 2.62±0.97). - Correlations (controlling sex): Age negatively correlated with leisure (r=−0.313, p<0.001), social integration (r=−0.128, p=0.017), health (r=−0.194, p<0.001), functional skills (r=−0.152, p=0.004), and activity level (r=−0.236, p<0.001). Health positively correlated with functional skills (r=0.353), leisure (r=0.323), social integration (r=0.184), activity level (r=0.274) (all p<0.001). Well-being positively correlated with health, social integration, activity, leisure, functional skills, environmental quality; happiness showed similar positive correlations and a negative correlation with age (r=−0.221, p<0.001). Well-being and happiness correlated (r=0.493, p<0.001). - Hierarchical regressions: • Well-being: Model 1 (R2=0.035): cohabitation significant (β=0.138, t=2.435, p=0.015). Model 2 (R2=0.171): significant predictors were age (β=0.153, t=2.793, p=0.006), health (β=0.191, t=3.395, p=0.001), social integration (β=0.120, t=2.083, p=0.038), leisure activities (β=0.143, t=2.159, p=0.032), and environmental quality (β=0.137, t=2.712, p=0.007). • Happiness: Model 1 (R2=0.087): age (β=−0.181, t=−3.352, p=0.001) and cohabitation (β=0.170, t=3.085, p=0.002) significant. Model 2 (R2=0.260): health (β=0.137, t=2.568, p=0.011), social integration (β=0.260, t=4.790, p<0.001), and activity level (β=0.216, t=4.056, p<0.001) were significant predictors. Overall, living with relatives is associated with higher social integration, functional abilities, well-being, and happiness; yet, beyond cohabitation, social relationships, activity/leisure, environmental quality, and health are key correlates of well-being and happiness.

Findings confirm the hypothesis that cohabitation with relatives is associated with higher life satisfaction and happiness among older adults, consistent with prior literature linking solitary living to health risks and reduced well-being. Those living alone tended to be older, less educated, and with lower income, which can exacerbate health challenges and reduce quality of life, autonomy, and social integration. Importantly, the multivariate models show that while cohabitation relates to well-being and happiness, psychosocial determinants—social integration, activity level, leisure engagement, environmental quality, and perceived health—explain additional variance in both outcomes. This supports the view that diverse social networks and active engagement can sustain positive mental health regardless of living arrangement. Thus, enhancing social connectedness and participation can mitigate risks associated with living alone and promote autonomy, health, and subjective well-being in later life.

Cohabitation with relatives is associated with better social integration, functional skills, and higher levels of well-being and happiness among older adults. However, beyond living arrangements, social relationships, activity levels, leisure engagement, environmental quality, and perceived health are robust correlates of well-being and happiness. Public policies and interventions that promote social participation, community engagement, and lifelong learning can improve health and subjective well-being, particularly for those living alone. Future research should employ longitudinal and experimental designs to determine causal effects of social participation and to examine socioemotional implications of living arrangements across more diverse, representative samples.

The study is cross-sectional, precluding causal inferences and limiting understanding of changes over time. There was no experimental manipulation of social activity; only self-reported frequency was recorded. The sample was from a single region and comprised only older adults, which may reduce heterogeneity and generalizability; associations with sociodemographic factors such as sex, education, and income may be underdetected. Longitudinal and experimental studies with more diverse samples are needed.