The rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a significant marker of humanity’s growing planetary footprint. While some AMR traits predate the antimicrobial era, the rapid increase in antimicrobial substances since the 19th century has accelerated this 'Anthropocene in the cell'. Current responses focus on antimicrobial stewardship and drug innovation to prevent an 'antibiotic apocalypse'. However, this paper proposes a shift in perspective, arguing that the 'apocalypse' is already underway, manifesting as a degradation of the microbial commons. A return to microbial sensitivity is improbable due to antimicrobial dependency in food and medical systems and the existing genetic legacy. Therefore, the focus should shift to understanding life within this new era – the Antibiocene. This framework contextualizes mitigation efforts within a long-term eco-social framework of evolving human-microbial interactions. The paper reviews existing attempts to understand the fallouts of the antimicrobial era and the limitations of portraying AMR as a short-term challenge. It then argues that framing AMR as a major signal of the Antibiocene allows for the integration of social sciences, environmental humanities, and biomedical research, highlighting the multi-scalar and multi-faceted impacts of antimicrobial exposures and microbiota shifts. Finally, the paper proposes comparative investigations of sites with chronic antimicrobial hyper-exposure to untangle the biosocial dynamics of the Antibiocene and inform future eubiotic microbiota.

The introduction reviews existing literature highlighting the accelerating increase in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) driven by the widespread use of antimicrobials, including pharmaceuticals, heavy metals and biocides. The author discusses the limitations of the existing apocalyptic narrative surrounding AMR, arguing it is too narrowly focused on short-term clinical and economic impacts, neglecting the long-term ecological consequences. The literature on the Anthropocene and its challenges, particularly regarding the 'outscaling' of human understanding by vast geological timescales, is also reviewed, setting the stage for the proposed Antibiocene framework. Existing policy interventions are criticized for their short-term focus, neglecting the environmental dimension of One Health, and for their emphasis on human and animal health over environmental concerns. The author points to a gradual shift towards addressing environmental AMR hazards but stresses the continued political neglect of the ecological dimensions of the problem, due to both the traditionally lower status of environmental sciences and the difficulty of translating environmental AMR data into policy.

This paper employs a qualitative methodology, analyzing existing literature and data to construct a novel conceptual framework. The author uses a thought-piece approach, integrating insights from various disciplines (history, social sciences, environmental humanities, and biomedical sciences) to develop the concept of the Antibiocene. The methodology focuses on reviewing existing literature on antimicrobial resistance, the Anthropocene, and One Health, critically evaluating the limitations of current approaches to understanding and addressing the issue. The author synthesizes this literature to build a new theoretical framework for understanding the multiscalar dynamics of antimicrobial resistance as a geological era. The paper then proposes a specific research agenda focused on comparative longitudinal analysis of sites of chronic antimicrobial hyper-exposure, advocating for interdisciplinary collaboration to integrate genomic, ecological, biochemical, archaeological, and historical data. This involves analyzing antimicrobial activity in different environmental strata, comparing genetic markers of microbial adaptation across various biogeographies, and examining historical data on antimicrobial use and its impacts. Further, historical and social sciences analysis of communities living in hyper-exposed sites is proposed to understand adaptation to chronic exposures at individual and societal levels. The approach involves studying archival records, interviewing relevant stakeholders, and analyzing various types of data to understand the relationship between exposures, adaptations, and socio-economic factors.

The core argument centers on the concept of the 'Antibiocene' – a new geological era characterized by the pervasive and accelerating impact of human-produced antimicrobials on microbial life and ecosystems. This concept helps reframe antimicrobial resistance (AMR) not just as a medical or agricultural problem, but as a major signal of a profound planetary-scale change. The paper emphasizes the need to shift from a short-termist, pharmaceutical-focused approach to AMR governance towards a more holistic, long-term strategy. This involves expanding the scope beyond immediate concerns about treatment failure to encompass the wider ecological impacts of antimicrobial exposures and the unequal distribution of associated risks and benefits. The analysis highlights the limitations of current antimicrobial stewardship efforts, which often focus narrowly on individual responsibility rather than the broader structural factors driving AMR. The authors point to the interconnected nature of microbiota and the cumulative legacies of antimicrobial exposures across various environments, illustrating the need for multi-scalar, eco-societal interventions. The paper argues for the development of 'eubiotic governance' – a long-term strategy aiming to mitigate dysbiotic dynamics across all One Health domains (human, animal, environmental) and to foster more balanced human-microbial relations. This necessitates acknowledging that eubiotic balance is dynamic and not simply measured by antimicrobial sensitivity. The paper explores the unequal distribution of risks associated with AMR, drawing parallels to existing research on slow violence and risk society. This highlights how chronic, multi-generational antimicrobial exposures disproportionately affect vulnerable populations and regions. Finally, the paper advocates for comparative longitudinal analyses of sites with extreme chronic antimicrobial pollution to generate deeper understanding of the Antibiocene's biosocial dynamics. Such studies, combining genomic, biochemical, historical, and societal data, can reveal the relationship between exposures, adaptations, and socio-economic factors.

The proposed Antibiocene framework offers a significant advancement in understanding and addressing antimicrobial resistance. By shifting the focus from an impending 'apocalypse' to a long-term ecological perspective, it creates opportunities for more effective policy interventions. The framework highlights the need for integrative, multidisciplinary research and policymaking, emphasizing the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. The concept of 'eubiotic governance' introduces a paradigm shift from merely conserving pharmaceutical efficacy to actively stewarding the wider microbial biosphere, recognizing the inherent complexities of establishing 'balance' and the challenges of achieving equity in distributing both burdens and benefits of antimicrobial use and exposure. This long-term ecological perspective necessitates addressing the social and environmental injustices inherent in the unequal distribution of risks associated with antimicrobial resistance.

The paper concludes that the Antibiocene framework offers a valuable lens through which to examine the long-term consequences of humanity's interactions with the microbial world. The proposed research agenda, focusing on comparative studies of hyper-exposed sites, will provide critical insights into the dynamics of AMR and inform the development of more just and sustainable strategies for managing our microbial commons. The study’s emphasis on equitable distribution of resources and responsibilities highlights the ethical considerations embedded in this global challenge.

As a thought piece, this paper does not present original empirical data. The proposed research agenda requires further empirical investigation to fully validate its claims. While the framework offers a valuable conceptual tool, its application might vary across different contexts, requiring careful consideration of local factors. The paper's focus on the Antibiocene as a distinct geological era may be debated, but its core message—the need for a more holistic and equitable approach to AMR—remains robust.