Switching location—shifting mindset? The attitude towards female employment of East–West migrants in Germany

The study investigates whether East-to-West internal migrants in Germany align their attitudes toward female employment with their region of origin (former East Germany) or their region of residence (former West Germany). Germany’s post-war division produced contrasting gender regimes: the FRG (West) institutionalized a male-breadwinner model, while the GDR (East) normalized full-time employment for mothers via extensive childcare provision. Because attitudes shape intentions and subsequent behaviors, understanding regional and migration-related differences is important. The authors compare East–West migrants with non-migrants socialized and residing in the West (West–West) and those socialized and residing in the East (East–East). Competing hypotheses are posed: H1a that East–West migrants resemble East Germans due to socialization; H1b that they resemble West Germans due to contextual adaptation/selection; and H2 that longer residence in the West is associated with more West-like (traditional) attitudes toward female employment.

The literature highlights how institutionalized norms and political economies shape gender role attitudes. In the FRG, policies and norms long reinforced a male-breadwinner/female-caregiver model, whereas the GDR expanded external childcare and normalized full-time maternal employment, fostering more egalitarian attitudes. Contemporary labor structures still reflect these legacies, with higher part-time employment among women and more father-breadwinner/mother-part-time arrangements in the former West than East. Intergenerational transmission of gender ideologies is well documented, suggesting socialization effects across cohorts. Conversely, research on migration emphasizes contextual influences and potential acculturation: relocation can alter well-being and behaviors, and attitudes may adapt depending on reasons for moving and time in the destination. Berry’s acculturation framework posits that adaptation depends on valuing heritage culture versus participation in the new context; selection may also matter as those less aligned with East norms could be more likely to move West. Prior evidence on domestic migrants’ attitude change is scarce and mixed, motivating direct tests of H1a (socialization similarity to East), H1b (contextual similarity to West), and H2 (greater West similarity with longer West residence).

Design and data: Cross-sectional data from the German General Social Survey (GGSS/ALLBUS) for 1992, 2004, and 2016 were analyzed. Sampling used multi-stage random methods (1992) and two-stage disproportionate random samples in municipalities (2004, 2016). Personal interviews used PAPI in 1992 and CAPI in 2004/2016. After excluding West-to-East migrants due to small Ns and removing missing values, final samples were N=2393 (1992), N=2077 (2004), and N=1486 (2016). In 2016, a split questionnaire reduced n for the attitude items. Measures: The dependent variable was a latent construct capturing attitudes toward female employment via six Likert items (1=“completely agree” to 4=“completely disagree”), with traditional statements inverted as needed. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses (ordered CFA with DWLS) validated the single-factor structure; fit indices were generally adequate (CFI ≥0.968, TLI ≥0.940; RMSEA ~0.091–0.111; SRMR ≤0.064). Cronbach’s alpha: 0.78 (1992), 0.82 (2004), 0.76 (2016). Factor scores were scaled 0 (most progressive) to 100 (most traditional), mean 50. Grouping variable: Place of socialization and current residence defined three groups: West–West (socialized and interviewed in West), East–East (socialized and interviewed in East), East–West migrants (socialized in East, residing in West; moved after age 14 in 1992/2004; 2016 used “where spent most of youth”). Berlin cases were retained after robustness checks. Covariates: Sex (female vs. male), age (centered), years of education (secondary school years; centered), weekly work hours (unemployed/not employed coded 0), and parenthood (≥1 child, 0/1). For East–West migrants, years since migration to the West (in decades) and migration period (before 1961, 1961–1989, after 1989; available 1992/2004) were considered in subgroup analyses. Analytic strategy: Descriptive comparisons used Tukey HSD for continuous variables and chi-square tests for binaries. Pooled regressions across the three survey years (lme4) predicted the attitude factor score with group and covariates; additional pooled regressions restricted to East–West migrants assessed associations with duration of residence (decades). Robustness checks examined: inclusion/exclusion of Berlin; adding settlement size (population class); running models on individual items; and separate OLS by year (1992, 2004, 2016).

• East–West migrants’ attitudes differed from both non-migrant groups but were closer to West–West (more traditional) than East–East (more progressive), supporting H1b and not H1a.
• Pooled regression (reference=East–West migrants): West–West more traditional (estimate 2.82; std. β=0.13; 95% CI 0.58 to 5.06; p=0.014); East–East more progressive (estimate -9.55; std. β=-0.44; 95% CI -11.86 to -7.25; p<0.001). Marginal R2=0.223, conditional R2=0.308.
• Covariates: Women more progressive (std. β=-0.34; p<0.001); higher age associated with more traditional views (std. β=0.17; p<0.001); more education associated with more progressive views (std. β=-0.23; p<0.001); having children showed a small association with more progressive views (std. β=-0.05; p=0.047); more work hours associated with more progressive attitudes (std. β=-0.11; p<0.001).
• Time trends: All groups became more liberal by 2016 compared to 1992, with a traditional peak around 2004.
• Duration in West among East–West migrants: Those residing <20 years had the most progressive attitudes; significantly more traditional attitudes were found for 3 decades (CI 1.69–25.62; p=0.026) and 5 decades (CI 0.33–35.40; p=0.046) versus <10 years, partially supporting H2; other decade contrasts were not statistically significant, likely due to small Ns.
• Migration timing: Those who migrated until 1989 were more traditional than those migrating after 1989 (std. β≈-0.41, p<0.05), but this effect lost significance when years since migration were added (std. β≈-0.20, p=0.338), suggesting duration better captures adaptation.
• Robustness: Results were stable when including Berlin, adding population size, modeling individual items (two items showed no West–West vs. East–West difference), and estimating year-specific OLS (directionally consistent; limited power for 1992/2016).

Findings indicate that East–West migrants’ attitudes toward female employment align more with their Western context than with their Eastern socialization, consistent with contextual adaptation and/or selection. The partial association between longer West residence and more traditional attitudes suggests potential acculturation over extended periods, in line with theoretical expectations that adaptation is a long-term process. Selection likely also plays a role: many who left before 1961—prior to the GDR’s strong reconciliation policies—were the most traditional, and migration decisions may reflect weaker attachment to East German egalitarian norms or stronger materialistic goals. The results have implications for gender equality and well-being, as traditional attitudes are associated with more gendered divisions of labor and higher psychological distress; policies that support maternal employment and normalize external childcare could mitigate traditionalism’s effects. Gender differences persisted, with women—especially female East–West migrants—holding more progressive attitudes, aligning with interest-based theories and prior evidence. The study underscores the importance of considering remigration, urban–rural differences, and local childcare infrastructures when evaluating migrants’ attitude trajectories and integration into regional gender regimes.

This study contributes evidence that internal migrants from East to West Germany hold attitudes toward female employment that are more similar to West Germans than East Germans, and that greater time spent in the West is associated with more traditional views, albeit with limited statistical power. The work highlights the interplay of socialization, selection, and contextual adaptation in shaping gender role attitudes. Future research should employ longitudinal designs and age–period–cohort approaches to disentangle selection from assimilation, incorporate direct measures of childcare availability and urbanicity, assess motivations for migration and regional identity, and account for remigration dynamics. Larger samples of domestic migrants are needed to robustly test temporal processes of attitude change and heterogeneity by migration timing.

• Cross-sectional design precludes within-person causal inference on attitude change or adaptation.
• Small sample sizes of East–West migrants, especially by survey year and for duration subgroups, limit power and precision; pooled regression was necessary.
• Potential heterogeneity among migrants by migration timing (pre-1961, 1961–1989, post-1989), reasons for moving, and likelihood of remaining vs. remigrating could confound comparisons.
• Lack of direct measures for motives, regional identity, childcare accessibility, and contextual opportunities; settlement size proxy did not alter main results but is indirect.
• Measurement differences in 2016 (youth location question; split questionnaire) reduced available observations for the attitude scale.