International development (ID) agriculture projects are crucial for sustainable agriculture in developing countries. However, they face unique supply chain challenges due to political, legal, cultural, technical, organizational, social, economic, and environmental factors. Previous research has overlooked the specific supply chain issues within ID agriculture projects. This study aims to fill this gap by identifying key challenges and recommending solutions in the context of a developing country, using Bangladesh as a case study. The study's objectives are twofold: (i) to determine the most significant challenges to procurement and supply chain management in Bangladesh's public-sector ID agriculture projects, and (ii) to identify the most effective recommendations to overcome these challenges. The complexities of project supply chains, including multiple suppliers and varying lead times, necessitate formal and structured management approaches to ensure value optimization and contribute to the socio-economic development of the host country. The interconnectedness of project success with bilateral cooperation between host and donor countries highlights the importance of effective supply chain management. Existing studies have addressed general procurement issues but lack a focused examination of ID agriculture projects' unique supply chain challenges in a developing country setting. This study addresses this research gap by providing a novel contribution to the literature and industry.

The literature review highlights the distinction between project supply chain management and other types of supply chain management. Project supply chain management involves efficiently integrating all relevant organizations' activities to deliver a product or project within a specific budget and timeframe. The project supply chain comprises two chains: a planning chain (stakeholder focus, time and resource management, procurement and supplier focus) and a delivery chain (supply management, conversion/reproduction, handover and closure). While SCM's value in enhancing project performance has been acknowledged, particularly in sectors like construction and shipbuilding, the challenges of high fragmentation, limited coordination, and disagreements persist. The literature also reveals a lack of attention to supply chain issues within public sector agriculture projects in developing countries. Public sector ID projects present additional complexity due to the involvement of various stakeholders (government, donors, project professionals, vendors, beneficiaries). The existing literature is scarce on procurement and supply chain issues within Bangladesh's public sector ID agriculture projects. Therefore, this study contributes original insights relevant to the sector, literature and future scholars. The literature review categorized challenges into project sponsor-related, project management-related, supply chain-related, contextual, and institutional challenges. Sponsor-related challenges include a lack of coordination between donors and stakeholders, incompatible donor norms and regulations, and complex fund disbursement processes. Project management-related challenges involve resource scarcity and poor planning. Supply chain-related challenges relate to procurement and logistical issues. Contextual challenges encompass political influence, bureaucracy, and social/cultural factors. Institutional challenges stem from a lack of efficiency and ethical concerns.

The study employed a mixed-methods approach combining a literature review, focus group discussions (FGDs), and the fuzzy Delphi method (FDM). The use of multiple data collection methods was strategically chosen to address the scarcity of literature and expertise on supply chain management of ID agriculture projects in developing countries context. The FGD and FDM methods were particularly suitable as they do not require large sample sizes or advanced respondent knowledge. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques were used to select participants from the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) in Bangladesh, a key implementer of ID agriculture projects. The methodology aimed to mitigate potential biases (common methods and source bias) through various steps: obtaining variables from different sources; ensuring psychological separation between predictor and criterion variables; refining scale items; reducing social desirability bias; and maintaining anonymity. The literature review provided an initial list of supply chain challenges. FGDs, involving ten experts with extensive experience in managing ID agriculture projects, were conducted to identify and rank the significant challenges and their corresponding strategies. Two FGDs were sequentially executed to collect a rich dataset. The FGD results were validated by an expert panel of four supply chain experts and academics. The FDM was applied to rank the recommendations generated from the FGDs and expert panel for overcoming the identified challenges. The FDM integrates the Delphi method with fuzzy concepts to translate experts' opinions into precise figures. The method uses a seven-point linguistic scale (extremely unimportant to extremely important), represented by triangular fuzzy numbers, to capture the nuanced opinions of the experts. A total of ten experts participated in the FDM. The data collection and analysis involved several steps: collecting experts' opinions using fuzzy Delphi questionnaires; setting up triangular fuzzy numbers; calculating the fuzzy average weight; converting linguistic terms to positive trapezoidal fuzzy numbers using fuzzy number operations; and defuzzification to convert fuzzy numbers into crisp values. The best non-fuzzy performance (BNP) value was calculated to rank the recommendations. The methodology employed ensured a rigorous approach to identify and prioritize challenges and solutions.

The study identified seventeen key challenges to the supply chain management of ID agriculture projects in Bangladesh. These included: delayed project start; improper demand forecasting; incompatible donor regulations; poor procurement planning; complex fund disbursement; scope creep; inadequate contract monitoring; natural disasters and climate change; lack of logistical support; political influence; bureaucratic delays; incompetent procurement staff; social and cultural grievances; biological disease and pests; delays in key staff hiring; frequent staff transfers; and poor communication. The findings were consistent with earlier studies but provided a more comprehensive and specific list tailored to ID agriculture projects. The FGD and expert panel processes refined the initial list derived from the literature review, adding and removing items based on contextual considerations. The fuzzy Delphi method was then used to rank the recommendations for each challenge. The top-ranked recommendations for each challenge are detailed in Table 4 of the original paper and summarized below. For delayed project starts, the top recommendation was a time-bound digitized project approval process. For improper demand forecasting, proper negotiation with donors was most important. For incompatible donor regulations, negotiating with donors was again prioritized, alongside simplifying decision-making. For improper procurement planning, involvement of procurement professionals during project planning was highlighted. For complex fund disbursement, effective negotiation with donors received top ranking. Scope creep was best addressed by involving stakeholders during the project planning phase. A lack of contract monitoring was best tackled by implementing an electronic contract monitoring system. Natural disasters required planning based on climate and weather data. Lack of logistical support needed project approval based on requirements. Political influence was mitigated by recruiting experienced project directors and developing transparent procurement systems. Bureaucratic delays could be reduced by implementing time-bound electronic filing systems. A lack of competent procurement staff necessitated the development of suitable job descriptions and training programs. Social and cultural grievances were best addressed through stakeholder engagement. Biological disease and pest issues could be handled via effective pest surveillance and control measures. Delays in key staff hiring demanded timely project director appointments. Frequent staff transfers could be reduced by discouraging transfers except for justified reasons. Finally, improper communication was improved by deploying expert project personnel and establishing effective communication plans and systems.

The study's findings highlight the critical need for effective supply chain management in ID agriculture projects, particularly in resource-constrained developing country contexts. The ranked recommendations provide practical strategies for maximizing the utilization of limited resources and ensuring value for money. The identification of challenges related to donor involvement (incompatible regulations, complex fund disbursement) underscores the need for improved collaboration and coordination between donors and recipient countries. The prevalence of challenges linked to institutional factors (bureaucracy, incompetent staff) emphasizes the importance of strengthening institutional capacity and promoting good governance. The challenges related to environmental factors (natural disasters, pests and diseases) highlight the importance of incorporating climate change resilience into project design and implementation. The study's multi-method approach, incorporating both qualitative (FGDs) and quantitative (fuzzy Delphi) data, contributes to a richer understanding of the challenges and their relative importance. The ranked recommendations offer actionable insights for professionals, policymakers, and development partners to enhance project success and sustainability. The findings are directly relevant to maximizing the impact of international development efforts in the agriculture sector.

This study contributes significantly to the understanding of supply chain challenges in ID agriculture projects by identifying seventeen key challenges and providing ranked recommendations to overcome them. The findings are valuable for professionals, policymakers, and development partners in designing and implementing more effective projects. Future research should incorporate the perspectives of additional stakeholders (vendors, donors) and utilize larger sample sizes to enhance the generalizability of findings. Further research could explore the effectiveness of different interventions to overcome each challenge and examine the long-term impact of the recommendations on project success and sustainability.

The study's limitations include the focus on a single developing country (Bangladesh) and the reliance on a specific sample of project professionals from the DAE. The perspectives of other stakeholders, such as donors and vendors, were not directly included. While the FGDs and fuzzy Delphi method effectively capture expert opinion, the relatively small sample size may limit the generalizability of the findings to other contexts. Future studies should consider using a larger, more diverse sample of experts and stakeholders to enhance the robustness and applicability of results. Additionally, the subjective nature of expert judgments in the fuzzy Delphi process may introduce some level of uncertainty into the ranking of recommendations.